ʻO ka palapala honua o ke awa o ka muliwai ʻo Amazon. Kiʻi kiʻi: Kmusser / Wikimedia Commons
E pane i kēia nīnau, pono ʻoe e noʻonoʻo pono i kahi e hoʻopiha ai ka wai i nā wai.
Hoʻomaka kēlā me kēlā me kēia kahawai, kahi puʻu wai e hoʻopili ai, i kapa ʻia ʻo he mau puʻupuʻu. I ka huli ʻana, hiki i nā mea lawe o ka muliwai nui ke loaʻa iā lākou iho, nā mea lawe liʻiliʻi. Ke hopena, ua hui pū ʻia e hana i kahi ʻōnaehana ākea he nui. Akā mai hea mai ka wai mai ka liʻiliʻi loa o nā mea lawe mai? Ka mea, ua hānai lākou i ka ua a me ka wai i lalo, a i nā aniani he nui aʻe. No laila, hōʻiliʻili ka muliwai mai kekahi mau ʻāina i ka ua a me ka wai kō i ka wai hoʻokahi. ʻO ka ʻāpana kahi i hōʻiliʻili ai ka wai i kapa ʻia ʻo ia ka puʻu wai, a ʻo ka ʻāpana kahi e hōʻiliʻili ai ka ʻāina wai i kapa ʻia ka ʻikepili wai. ʻO ka huna ʻaina no ka hopu ʻana. ʻO ka maʻamau, ua lawe ʻia kahi hopu wai ma ka wai wai, ʻoiai he paʻakikī loa e nānā i nā palena o kahi hopu wai.
He kahawai wai kahi ʻāina ʻāina kahi e hōʻiliʻili ai ka ua a kahe i loko o kahi wai ʻauʻau. Aia ka ʻona kahi i loaʻa ai ka wai āpau mai ka ua, ka hoʻoilo ma ke kahawai, a me nā kahe kokoke e iho mai ana i lalo o ka pali i kahi wai o ka wai, a me nā wai wai ma lalo o ka honua.
Loaʻa kēlā me kēia wai, ʻo ka muliwai liʻiliʻi loa. Eia nō naʻe, ʻo ka ʻāpana o kahi muliwai nui, ʻo ia wale ka puʻuwai o nā ʻāpana o kāna mau punawai. E hoʻokaʻawale i nā wai ʻauʻau a me nā kahawai. E kahe ana nā wai me nā ipu wai i loko o nā wai o nā wai, a me nā mea e pono ai nā ʻauʻau wai kahe e kahe ana i loko o nā loko i waiho ʻia a i ʻole maloʻo i ka wao nahele.
ʻO ka Amazon ka mea paʻa i ka wahi hopu. Noho ana ʻo 7,18 miliona mika square. km ʻO ke kīʻaha o ke kahawai o ʻAmelika Kūkā ʻia e 4 miliona mau mika square. km, a ʻo Mississippi hoʻi he 2,98 miliona mau mika square. km ʻO ke kōkō ʻia kēia mau wai āpau. Akā ua pani ʻia ka pākū Volga, no ka mea e kahe ana ʻo ia i loko o ke Kai Caspian, ʻo ia nō kahi loko nui. ʻO ka ʻāpana kolepa o Volga he 1.36 miliona mau mika square. km
ʻOi aku, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka wahi o ka ʻauʻau, ʻoi aku ka hohonu o ka muliwai, me ka hōʻiliʻili o ka wai i kahi ʻāina nui aku. Eia nō naʻe, ʻaʻole e hoʻokō ʻia ka lula, ʻo ka hoʻoilo i ka ua ma ka Honua. ʻO ke kumu hoʻohālikelike, ʻo 2.5 mau mika pahu Yenisei. km, akā, ʻoi ka nui o kona kahe wai ʻana ma mua o ka Mispipi (19800 e kū i ka 12743 cubic m / s).
Ka papa inoa o nā kumu i hoʻohana ʻia
Nā ʻano ʻauʻau muliwai
Ua hoʻokaʻawale nā ʻepekema i ʻelua ʻano kīnā wai - kū ʻia a me ka huki. Pākuʻi ʻia nā ʻeke wai ʻole i nā wai wai me nā kahe me nā wai ʻole i hoʻopili ʻia i nā kaʻe ma o ka muliwai nui. Ma nā wahi, nā ʻano a me nā nui, ʻokoʻa lākou. E like me nā mea hana, nā wahi ʻōpala nā mea i loaʻa i ke kai.
p, ka mea pā 3,1,0,0,0 ->
Hoʻohālikelike ʻia nā paʻu o nā muliwai āpau i ka lōʻihi o ke kahawai nui a me ka ʻāina o ka loaʻa ʻana o ka muliwai, ka nui o ka wai kahe a me ka paʻa o ka moʻo o ka muliwai, nā kumu wai a me nā kūlana hydro-regimen. Ma ka lōʻihi o ka muliwai ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia i nā mahele, liʻiliʻi a liʻiliʻi. Hoʻomaikaʻi ʻia nā muliwai e ka wai wai, ka hau, ka hau, ka lalo a me nā wai o nā kahawai, nā loko a me nā wai liʻiliʻi he mea nui nō hoʻi. ʻO ka hapa pinepine, ʻo nā ʻāpana o ka muliwai he mea kāwili ʻai i ka wā e loaʻa ai nā kumu wai.
p, ka mea pā 4,0,0,0,0,0 ->
ʻO nā ipu ʻauʻau nui nui loa ma ka honua
Ke manaʻoʻiʻo ʻia he ʻauʻau ka wai kēlā me ka wai, ʻoiai paha e kahe i loko o kekahi kahawai, ke kai a i kai paha. ʻO nā loko wai nui loa o nā muliwai aʻe:
Wahi a ka wahi o nā kahawai wai, ʻo lākou ka mea mua, o ka ʻona nui. ʻO nā kumu ka mea kumu nui o ka wai wai. Hoʻohana ʻia kā lākou wai no ka hoʻouluulu ʻana o nā kīhāpai, hana ʻia nā ʻōnaehana wai, hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻano wai i ka ʻoihana (metallurgy, ikaika, kūlohelohe ʻoihana hana). ʻAʻole ka pāʻani kumu wai hope loa no ka lawaiʻa ʻana. ʻO kekahi o nā hana a ke kahawai he ʻoliʻoli.
p, he ālai 6.0,0,0,0,0 -> p, he ālai 7,0,0,0,1 ->
No laila, ʻo ka muliwai nui, me nā kahakaha a me nā kumu wai wai e hoʻopuka ai kahi ʻauʻau wai. Hele ka wai i loko o ka wai i loko o ka wai, ua wai ka wai i ka wai. ʻOiai he waiwai nui nā waiwai wai no ka nohona o nā kānaka, hoʻohana ikaika ʻia lākou i nā wahi āpau o ke kālā a me ke ola o kēlā me kēia lā. ʻO kēia ke alakaʻi i ka hoʻohemo ʻana o kekahi mau pūnaehana, akā e pale ai i kēia, pono e hoʻohana pono i ka wai o nā ʻauwai wai o ka honua.
Hōʻanoʻike
ʻO ka loko o kēlā me kēia kaila wai e loaʻa ai nā hali a i lalo. ʻO kahi ʻāpana māhina he hapa o ka ʻāpana o ka honua kahi e kahe ana ka wai i loko o kahi pūnaehana wai i hāʻawi ʻia a i ʻole ka wai ʻano. Hoʻomoe ka hana a lalo o ke kahawai no ka loaʻa ʻana o ka wai ma o ka pūnaka wai. I ka hihia maʻamau, ʻaʻole i hoʻohālikelike ʻia nā papa wai a me nā lalo. Akā no ka mea o ka hoʻoholo ʻana o ka palena o ka hopu ʻana i lalo o ka ʻāina, ua paʻakikī loa ia, ʻo ka loaʻa ʻana o ka maka i lawe ʻia ka nui o ka ʻōpū o ka muliwai.
ʻO nā hewa i kū mai ma ke ʻano o ka hoʻopiʻi ʻana i ka nui o ka pānaʻi a me nā ʻāpana poʻomanaʻo, hiki ke loaʻa i nā wai liʻiliʻi a me nā loko liʻiliʻi wale nō, a me nā māiʻu nui e kahe ana i nā kūlana kūlohelohe, e hāʻawi ana i ka loli o ka wai ma waena o nā kīʻaha kokoke (ma ka laʻana ka karst). ʻO ka palena ma waena o nā kīʻaha o nā kahawai pilikino e hele i ka wai.
Ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā loko i ka wai a me ka luaʻi. Ua kapa ʻia nā wahi like ʻole o ka palupalu, a me ka nui o nā kamaʻilio ma waena o nā kahawai wai me ke kai, ua kapa ʻia nā ʻano wai ʻole; Loaʻa i nā mea hoʻolimalima wai nāona liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi, ʻo ka hapa nui o nā ʻāpana o ka ʻaoʻao wai nui.
ʻO nā wai nui o ka honua
Laulā | ||
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Kolo Mokupuni o ka moana kaiʻo Basin Pōina o ka Moana Pakipika o ka Moana Kaiaulu | ʻO ke kuʻo Kahakai ʻO Basin | Hoʻopili ʻo ʻAmelika Caribbean |
Ka pane
ʻŌnaehana wai - kahi kohu o nā ka wai e ninini ana i ka wai ma kahi kaalawai maʻamau i loko o ke kai, loko a i ʻole nā wai wai ʻē aʻe.
POOLHE KOAINA - (Basin) ka wahi o ka honua kahi i puka mai ai ka muliwai nā hoʻoili a pau e hānai ʻia ai,
He wai kahe i ke kai pae ʻāina mahele o ka honua kahi i hoʻokaʻawale i nā hopu (ʻelua kīʻaha) ʻelua a ʻoi paha mau muliwai, nā loko, nā moana a i ʻole ka wai moana e alakaʻi ana i ka kahe o ka ua.
Kahawai wai
RIVER POOL. ʻO ka muliwai he ʻāpana o ka honua a puni e hoʻopili ana i kahi kahe a i ʻole he wai ʻano me ka wai kahawai a puni nā wahi ʻike i kahi mai ia e kahe ana i ka kahawai wai a i ʻole ka wai o ka wai.
ʻO nā ʻāpana muliwai he ʻokoʻa i ka nui a me kona ʻano. ʻO ka hiʻohiʻona morphometric ʻano nui kahi ʻauʻau kahawai ma kona wahi, e hōʻike pinepine ʻia ma nā wahi square.
Ma ka pae ʻauʻau kahawai, holoi ʻia nā ʻāina lepo e ʻāpala ʻia e nā muliwai. Ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o ka sediment runoff alakaʻi i ka siltation o nā kō, nā loko, nā ʻenehana, a me nā ʻōhua hoʻouna. No nā kūlana US, ua manaʻo ʻia he kumu nui kēia ka pōʻino o ka hoʻokele waiwai ma mua o ka lepo o ka lepo.
ʻO nā waiwai waiwai o nā moʻo moana ʻehā a me nā nui o nā ʻano iʻa koʻikoʻi i ʻike ʻia i nā loko o ke kai a me nā loko wai o Yakutia. Ma nā ʻāpana subarctic a me nā arctic, hoʻopilikia aʻeha loa nā kaola aquatic i nā hopena anthropogenic - hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ke koena o Yakutia. Eia nō naʻe, ke kānāwai kūʻai ʻole hemahema, ʻike ʻike ʻole i ka mana o kēia manawa o nā lehulehu o nā cetaceans, nā pinnipeds a me nā iʻa i alakaʻi ai i ka ʻoiaʻiʻo ʻo ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka lawaiʻa e hoʻoholo ʻia ʻaʻole e ka pono o ka ola, akā e nā mea waiwai. ʻO ka makemake e hoʻonui i nā waiwai, a i ka manawa pōkole, e alakaʻi i ka moekolohe ʻana o nā holoholona holoholona a kau i kekahi o ko lākou mau iwi i ka puhipala o ka hoʻopau.
ʻO ka haina ʻana o kahi ʻōnaehana wai ʻo ia ka mea mua, ʻo ia ka maʻalahi (ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i nā kahawai, ka nalowale o nā waʻa liʻiliʻi, ka luku ʻana i nā waikahe, nā wahi wai a me nā pā kahiko). Ke lilo nei ka ʻōnaehana wai paʻakikī i ka hoʻolālā ʻenehana hana maʻalahi, a hana ke kūlanakauhale i nā hana kūlohelohe a pau o ka muliwai. Ke hoʻomāhuahua nei ke kūlanakauhale i ka wai, hoʻopiʻi pū ʻia me ka piʻi o ka nui o ka wai kai a me nā kahe ʻana (ma muli o nā lehe) o nā kaona kaiāulu. Hoʻopau ana ke kaona o ka ʻenehana kūwaho ma ka hiki iā ia ke hoʻopuka hou i nā lako wai, no laila e hoʻomohala mau ke kūlanakauhale i nā ʻōpana wai hou. I kēia manawa, ua alakaʻi ka wai wai o nā kūlanakauhale i ka hoʻohui ʻana o nā muliwai ʻEulopa o ka pā o Kama-Volga me nā muliwai ʻĀsia o Irtysh-Ob basin.
Ke hoʻoholo nei (¿(() no nā ʻāpana o nā kahawai wai, ka ʻike nui ʻana o nā huki ʻana i nā ʻikepili wai ma luna o nā panalāʻau e like me ke kahakaha ʻana o kahi makahiki kalima, ʻike ʻia ka ʻike wai wai ma nā ʻāpana nui i ka mea i koi ʻia.
ʻO ka hana pono o ka hoʻokele wai i loko o ke kahawai nui e pili ana i ka hiki ke loaʻa i ka ʻike e pono ai no ka hoʻoholo ʻana, a pono hoʻi e laulaha, e kū pono i nā koi o ke ʻano ʻoihana e hoʻokūkū, a nui hoʻi e noʻonoʻo i ka ʻano multifunctional o ka hoʻokele wai kūlohelohe i ka nui a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka wai ma kahi. Hiki ke loaʻa ka ʻikepili no ka hoʻokele wai kīʻaha wai mai nā kumu mua, a me nā papahana nānā, ka helu a me nā wānana e like me nā hiʻohiʻona a me nā ʻōnaehana loea, a me nā kumuwaiwai ʻē aʻe, no ka ʻike ʻana i ka ʻikepili i loaʻa ka ʻikepili a i ʻole ʻike ʻike. ʻAno kūlohelohe, i ke kaʻina hana hoʻoholo, ua aʻo ʻia e hoʻohana i ka ʻike ʻike o kēia mau kumu. I ka manawa like, pono e hoʻomaopopo ʻia he kumu nui o ka ʻike kikoʻī a me ka ʻikepili e pili ana i ke kūlana o nā kai kūlohelohe, nā mea kūlohelohe a me nā mea maoli kūlohelohe-kumu, nā kumu kumu o ka anthropogenic i ʻo ia nā mea mālama pili kūlohelohe.
Eia nō naʻe, ʻokoʻa maoli nā kūlana kūlohelohe o nā pahū wai liʻiliʻi a no laila, i nā kūlana o nā keʻena wai-pale, hiki ʻole ke uhi pono i nā mea āpau o ke aniani ma o ka nānā ʻana i ka kahe. Ma keia e pili ana i kēia, pono ia e hoʻokaʻawale i ke ʻano o ke kahe o ka muliwai wai no kekahi o nā māhele i hōʻike ʻia e loaʻa ai ka hopena koʻikoʻi ma ka kahe o ka muliwai. Elima mau ʻano a i ʻole nā ʻenehana papahele i hoʻokaʻawale ʻia ma ka kikowaena wai, a me nā ʻano o nā ʻāina a me nā mea kanu, a no laila e pili ana i ke kahe o ka wai a me ka wai: , 4 - nā wahi kūpono ʻole me nā pāpale lauʻeleʻeleʻeleʻele a me 5 mau pākana huakaʻi me nā wahi i hoʻohuihui ʻia o nā hopu ʻia e pili pono ana iā ia (nā ʻōpio, nā wahi kīwī kikī). Hāʻawi ʻia nā ʻano āpau o nā ʻāpana me ke ana kūpono. ʻO kahi okahi ke ʻano he 5, kahi i hoʻoholo ʻia ai ka holo wai no ka hōʻilo ʻana ma ka helu ʻana i nā mālama hau ma mua o ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana o ka hoʻoilo, hoʻoheheʻe i ka hopena o ke kahawai, a me ka pūnāwai paʻa 0.9.
Kahi iki ka mana o ka pili i nā kahawai o ka kahawai, ma muli o ke kuhi ʻana o ka mana o ka ʻāina infiltration hiki ke pani ʻia e ka māhuahua a hōʻemi paha paha i ka holo o ka wai wai ma luna o ka honua o ka honua, e pili ana i kēia kumu. He mana koʻikoʻi ka hōʻoluʻolu i nā mea pilikino o ke kūlike o ka wai wai o nā ʻauʻau wai: nā ua, nā hoʻohemo o ka ea i loko o nā ʻāina, a me ka hoʻomu ʻia. Hōʻike ka mana o kēia hōʻoluʻolu ma muli o ka nui o kona mau ʻano. He mea koʻikoʻi nō ia ma nā mauna, kahi e piʻi nui ai ka pae makahiki me ka kiʻekiʻe o ka ʻāina, ke ʻano nei ka lewa, kahi e hoʻohemo ai i ka ea a, ʻo ia hoʻi, he hoʻonui i ka runoff. Mālama, e hoʻonui ʻia ka hapa o ka ua nui me ka kiʻekiʻe, ke alakaʻi nei i ka piʻi ʻana o ka coefficient runoff, a, a no ia mea, ke ʻano nui, a me ka loli nui ʻana o ka noho wai ʻana, ka mea i ʻōlelo ʻia ma nā puʻu kuahiwi kiʻekiʻe me ka mea ʻai glacial.
V.E. Manaʻo ʻo Vodogretsky "no nā kīʻaha liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi ma nā wahi pālahalaha a me nā wahi ala-ala-ala i kahe ʻole ʻana i ka wai kai, ua emi nui ka nui o ka wai i ka wā o ko agro-reclamation, e alakaʻi ai i ka emi like like me ka nui o ka pahu manu - a hiki i 20 -40%." N.I. ʻO Koronkevich, ma ke kumu o kāna noiʻi, ua hoʻopau ʻo ia i ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻia o ka holo iʻa mai ka ʻāina hoʻopihapiha ua helu ʻia ma ka awelika o 40%. Eia kekahi, ma ka wahi o ka lepo soddy-podzolic, ʻo ka emi ʻana o ke kahe he 10-20%, i loko o nā wahi o nā pāpale hina, podzolized a holo aku i nā chernozems, 20-40%, ma ka wahi o nā maʻamau, maʻamau, a me nā chernozems kūkulu hema, 25-60%, ma ka wahi o nā ʻeleʻeleʻele-lepo 65 - 90%.
Inā manaʻo mākou he lula o ka hohonu o ka hohonu o ka waihona wai o ka loko o ka loko o Lake. Hanka, a laila hoʻohālikelike (3.10.1) e wehewehe i ka dinamics o kēia wai i ka wā o ke nānā ʻana. Hoʻomaopopo pū kekahi a me ke ʻano haʻahaʻa o luna a me ke kūpaʻa e pili ana i nā haunaele, a me kēia ʻano nui o ka hilalelo ʻana i nā ʻike o ka kahawai wai o ka loko wai. Ua wehewehe ʻia ʻo Hanka ma ka hele ʻana o nā wai haʻahaʻa a me nā wai kiʻekiʻe.
Kahele nui ʻia i ʻEulopa ma ka hikina o ka Pyrenees a me ke kūkulu ʻākau o nā Alps - i nā kīkaha nā muliwai a me nā wahi i ʻike ʻia o nā ʻĀkau, Baltic, Keʻokeo (a hiki i a me Pechora), Aegean, ʻUlei, Azov, Caspian a me nā kai Aral. Hoʻopau nui ʻia ia ma waho o kona ʻano kūlohelohe, me nā Urals, i nā wahi hale a me nā loko o nā loko wai o Irtysh a me Ob, a me nā loko Baala-Angarsk (Kupchinsky, 1987). ʻO ka hōʻike ʻana o ka ʻano o ka nui o nā ʻano morphological o ka bream ma luna o ka pālahalaha holoʻokoʻa e hōʻike ana i nā ʻokoʻa ma waena o ka maʻamau a ma ka hikina (A. brama orientalis Berg, 1949 mai nā kīʻaha o nā puʻu Caspian a me Aral), ka mea i lilo i kumu no ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o nā mea i kahi kaʻawale ʻē aʻe. he ecological, geographic, age-related and sexual in natural (Morozova, 1952, Shaposhnikova, 1964, Mitrofanov et al., 1988). ʻO ka loiloi o intra- a interpopulation variability i hōʻike ʻia i ka noho ʻana o nā pūʻulu he 7 o nā heluna kanaka: Pechora, ʻākau, komohana, Belozersky, Rybinsk, waena, a me Aral-Caspian (Izyumov, 1987). Ma nā wahi āpau e loaʻa i nā mea kūʻai waiwai nui loa o ka iʻa carp. ʻO ka hapa nui o nā muliwai e hōʻike ʻia e nā pepa noho a me nā semi-aisle.
E like me ka mea hoʻohālike o ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe wai ʻana i nā papa liʻiliʻi ʻoi liʻiliʻi, e noʻonoʻo e pili ana i ka ʻauʻau kahawai. Moscow, ma laila e mālama ʻia ana nā mākaʻikaʻi aupuni i nā ʻāpana ʻehā: ka ʻaoʻao luna o ke aukana, ka māhele o ka auhau, kahi mea e hoʻokaʻawale i ke kikowaena o ke kūlanakauhale ʻo Moscow, a me ka hopena hope loa, i hiki ai i kekahi ke ʻano i ka ʻāpana āpau. Kahi hea ma ka muliwai. Ma Moscow a me kāna mau mea hānai, ʻoi aku ka kiʻekiʻe o nā aila ma mua o ka MPC (a hiki i 20 mau manawa): i lalo o ka kahe he nui ka hoʻonui ʻana o nā ʻike o nā huahana aila, hiki ke kiʻekiʻe loa i ka puka mai Moscow (0.2 mg / l), a emi mai ma ka waha o ka muliwai, ka ʻike o nā huahana aila. iki, heʻuʻuku hoʻi, ka mea, i pili me nā hana hoʻomaʻemaʻe iā ʻoe iho. I ka huina, hiki i ka 1 miliona ke hoʻokuʻu ʻia mai ka palena o Russia me ka wai (muliwai) wai i kēlā me kēia makahiki.t o nā huahana hinu, ʻo ia ka mea i koe ma hope o ka hōʻihoʻi ʻana a me ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻana iā lākou iho. Ma kahi o 5 mau manawa a ʻo ka nui o ka aila (e pili ana iā 4-5 miliona mau) e komo i nā ala wai. Ma ka hapalua o kēia mau lā e hele i loko o nā muliwai, ke koena ka mea ʻē aʻe ma luna o ka ʻili, hoʻohaumia i ka lepo a me ka wai lepo. ʻOiaʻiʻo, i kēia hihia, nui ka māhele nui o nā huahana aila, a ma muli o ka 0.2% o ka nui o ka loaʻa ʻana o ka ʻaila a pau ma loko o Rūsia e komo ana i loko o ke kai a me nā wai.
ʻO ke kumu mua o ke ʻano o ke ʻano o ke kula o ka ʻāina i hoʻopaʻa ʻia a me ke koho ʻana i kahi ʻāpana wai liʻiliʻi ma ke ʻano he ʻano o kekahi ʻano ʻano ʻāina. Ma kēia ʻae, he mea nui e ʻike i nā kikoʻī āpau i ʻike ʻia i ka papa o ka honua ma ke ʻano o ka ʻāina i koho ʻia e ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana i nā palapala ʻano: topographic, geological, sediment Quaternary, a me ka hohonu o ka wai.
E noʻonoʻo i ka hoʻomākaukau ʻana o ka ʻōnaehana wai no ka wahi i loko o ka wai o kahi o nā kahe. ʻO nā mea hoʻohana nui o ka wai i loko o ia wai ka lako wai me ka lehulehu a me nā lehulehu, nā mea kanu wai wela, ka hoʻoili ʻana, ka hoʻouna ʻana a me ke olakino olakino. Hoʻopau ka waiwai o ka wai o ka muliwai wai e hoʻopiha i nā ʻōlelo kūloko o nā mea hoʻohana ʻole me ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i ka wai mai nā kīʻaha mai nā kahawai wai kokoke.
Seregin S. Ya. Hoʻololi a me nā ala o ka wānana pōkole i nā loli kūlohelohe i nā kūlana kūlohelohe o ke kahe o nā kīnā wai // Izv. ʻO ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa o USSR.
No ka makahiki i kēia manawa, e hoʻolālā nei nā VBB hana no nā puna wai hoʻonaninani loa no ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka wai i mea e hoʻopuka pono ai i nā kumuwaiwai wai i waena o nā ʻāpana kūloko o ke aupuni a i ʻole nā mea hana.
Koho o ka pilikia [37, 81]. Ke piʻi nui nei ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā wai wai kūloko, nā pilikia o ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻana i nā kīʻaha muliwai a me ko lākou hōʻemi ʻana i nā ʻōnaehana emi iho ka wai, nā lawaiʻa a me nā ʻano nui o ke kua. Pono ko lākou hoʻihoʻi hou ʻana i nā kumukūʻai nui, a pinepine ʻole hiki ʻole. Ma muli o ka hoʻopilikia nui a me nā hiki ʻole ke hōʻeha ʻia i nā waʻu liʻiliʻi - nā loulou ʻano pono nui o ka ʻoihana kahawai a me nā mea nui o ka kahawai. ʻO kēia manawa hou, ua nalowale nā kahawai liʻiliʻi ma muli o ka ulu ikaika o ka loaʻa ʻana a me ka hōʻino ʻana i nā ʻōnaehana wai maoli: punawai - wai, ka nahele - wai, a me nā mea āpau.
Ua manaʻo ʻia he mea kūpono e hoʻolālā i nā hana palekana i ka wai ʻaʻole wale nō i loko o ka ʻāina alakaʻi, akā ma ka ʻaoʻao kahawai wai (USA, Belgium, Germany, England, etc.). No laila, ua manaʻo ʻia ka pale wai ma ke ʻano. ʻO ka hoʻokele kikowaena i nā paʻu wai e kōkua i ka hōʻemi ʻana i nā haumia o nā kino wai.
E like me nā papa nui o ka hānō o ka lalo o nā kahe e holo ana, hiki ke lawe ʻia nā ʻōnaehana wai ma lalo o ke kula. ʻO nā wahi kaulike o ka ʻōlelo aʻe e hiki ai nā wahi ke kahele aku i kekahi o nā wai ʻalani i lalo o ka noʻonoʻo, me kāna mau wahi i hāʻawi ʻia ai, ua kaʻa a me nā mea hoʻoiho. Ma nā ʻimi noiʻi hou aku, ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā wahi o nā haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa, no ka laʻana, nā ʻāpana kahawai a i ʻole nā ʻāpana he nui, nā wahi i hoʻomohala ʻia ai nā ʻano wai o nā ʻano kai (nā wai o nā karst massifs, nā waihona kūloko a me nā pāluʻu fluvioglacial), etc. i na hana a V.A. ʻO Vsevolozhsky lāua ʻo I.F. Fidelli (Vsevolozhsky, Fidelly, 1977).
ʻO ka ʻaoʻao maikaʻi loa i nā papahana hoʻonohonoho hou no ka mālama ʻana i ka wai ma ka orientation ʻo ia. ʻO nā kīʻaha muliwai ua pani paʻa i nā mea ʻuʻuku. Mai kēia ʻano ʻike, ʻike kekahi ʻano wai i kekahi mea iʻike pono ʻia, kahi kūlana kūikawā i nā mea kūlohelohe kūlohelohe. ʻO lākou, ka mea, kahi papa hana e hoʻākoakoa nei e hoʻohui i nā ʻano like ʻole o ke ola koi ola i ke kūkaʻi. He mea maikaʻi ke kumu pākaukau no ka hoʻopuka ʻana i kahi ʻano teritorial i ka ʻona hoʻokele hoʻomehana kūlohelohe a hāʻawi iā ia i kahi kani kūikawā [32, 33]. He mea kupanaha paha ma hope o ka hana o ka honua nei ke ʻano o ka makemake e hoʻohui i nā hui hoʻokele OS a me nā kino mālama wai. Ua hoʻokumu ʻia kēlā mau hana paʻakikī, no ka laʻana, ma Hungary (Ministry of Environment and Water Management) a me kekahi mau ʻāina ʻē aʻe. ʻAi ʻole kahi loiloi e hoʻokele ai i nā ʻōnaehana wai i kēia mau wā. I ka hapanui o nā ʻāina, ua ʻae ʻia nā mea ʻike wai hoʻomalu o nā ʻōpala wai nui ma ke ʻano he mea hoʻokele hoʻomohala nui: ma Polenekia, 7 ka poʻe o lākou i hāʻawi ʻia, ʻo UK - 10, Kina - 7, ma Kelemona - 5.
Ua kapa ʻia nā wai nui i ka wā pōkole a me ka piʻi wikiwiki i nā pae a me ka hoʻonui ʻana o ka wai i lalo o ke kahe o nā wai i hāʻule i loko o ka paawai wai a me ko lākou mau hāʻule wikiwiki. ʻO ka lōʻihi o ka manawa o nā kahawai, nā liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi o ka runoff i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā kahe, a me ko lākou mau manawa i ka manawa o ka wai ma ia kahawai like e hoʻokaʻawale i waena o nā kahe a me nā waikahe.
E hōʻike pōkole mākou i nā ala maʻamau loa no ka loiloi ʻokoʻa kūloko o nā kumuwaiwai kūlohelohe. ʻO ka mea waiwai, ʻo ka mālama pono ʻana i nā kūlana hydrogeological kūikawā o nā kīʻaha muliwai a me nā kumu hoʻohālikelike o ka lalo o lalo o ka wai i loko o ka wai mai nā wai āpau o ke kahe wai. ʻO ka noho aliʻi a me ka dinamika o ka lalo o ka wai i lalo o nā kahe wai mai nā kahawai wai i hoʻoilo ʻia e ka ʻoihana kahawai i hoʻoholo ʻia e nā ʻano o ka hanana a me ka hāʻawi ʻana i ka wai a me nā wai aliʻi ma kēia kahawai wai a i ʻole kāna ʻāpana a me nā kūlana o ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana i ka pili ma ka ʻaoʻao kahawai. I nā pilikia kahi i hoʻopili ʻia ai nā mea hoʻokahe wai i ka wai a i ka wā o ka wai ʻauʻau he nui mauʻu kai, kahi ʻano maʻamau no nā kahe kai nui, ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o ka kahawai kahawai wai ma ka papakō a me nā ʻaoʻao o lalo. 1960).
Ke hoʻoikaika nei i ka pohō wai. Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā kahawai wai ma ka ʻāina holoʻokoʻa: 90% o ka huina o ka makahiki holo i hāʻule nui ʻia i ke kīʻaha o ka ʻAlika a me Pākītika Moana, a ua emi mai ka 8% i ke kīʻaha o Caspian a me Azov Seas, kahi i loaʻa ai ma kahi o 80% o ka nui o ka Lūkia e kū ana a ʻo kāna kumu hoʻomohala a ʻo ka mahiai i kālai ʻia. . ^ E Ha yM. Ma keʻano holoʻokoʻa, ʻo ka liʻiliʻi o ka hoʻokaʻawaleʻana i nā wai no ka pono o ka hale e liʻiliʻi - 3% o ka kahe kahawai wai lōʻihi. Eia naʻe, ma ka baso o Volga, loaʻa ʻo ia i ka 33% o ka hoʻoneʻe ʻia ʻana o ka wai ma loko o ka ʻāina, a no ka nui o nā kahawai wai, ua nui loa ka nui o ka hoʻolilo ʻia o ka makahiki ma mua o ka hemo ʻana mai (Don - 64%, Terek - 68, Kuban - 80%, etc.). Ma ka hema o ka'āina o ʻEulopa o Rūsia, aneane nā kumu wai āpau e pili ana i ka hana waiwai a ka lahui. ʻOiai paha i loko o nā wai wai o nā Urals, Tobol a me Ishim, ua lilo ka wailele o ka wai i ka wai e lilo i mea nui e pale i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka hoʻokele mokuʻāina.
I kēia manawa, i kekahi mau hana e nā geomorphologists, ʻike mākou i ka hōʻoia o ka hōʻoia o kēia kūlana. No laila, Yu.G. ʻO Simonov, e pili ana i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā hiʻohiʻona papa wai o nā waʻa wai ma Transbaikalia a ma ka ʻaoʻao hema o ka Hikina Holo, i ka hopena o ke ʻano o ka pāpaʻi, ka ulu ʻana o nā hiʻohiʻona o nā pā wai nui a me nā wai wai i nā kaʻina kūleʻa e emi. ʻO kēia kūlana, e like me Yu.G. Ua hōʻoia ʻo Simonov, i ka hōʻoia o ke "kānāwai o ka pilina relational." Loaʻa nā ʻike like ʻana i nā hana a O.A. Badger, M. Levantova a me nā mea ʻē aʻe.
Mālama kēia ʻāpana i ka hana no ka hoʻokō ʻana i nā hoʻohālike i hāʻawi ʻia ma mua e pili ana i nā kūlana o ka muliwai. Volga. ʻO ka hoʻolālā o nā hana palekana wai i nā waihona wai nui e like me Volzhsky e loaʻa i nā kūlana nui ʻehā.
Aia i ka kiʻekiʻe o ka ʻokoʻa i nā hōʻailona demographic a me ka piʻiʻana o ka heluna o ka heluna o kahi wahi i hāʻawi ʻia i hoʻohālikelike ʻia i ka ʻāina kaohi a i ʻole nā awelika awelika no ka wai kahawai a i ʻole paeʻāina he ʻano, he maʻamau ka hoʻokaʻawale i nā kāʻalani 4-5. No ka laʻana, ʻo ka lāʻau olakino a me ke kaiapuni i nā wahi (a i ʻole nā hoʻokele) i hoʻokaʻawale i 5 mau māhele: 1 - hōʻoluʻolu, 2 - nui ke kaumaha, 3 - nui ka hoʻoweliweli, 4 - koʻikoʻi a pilikia paha, 5 - nā hanana pōʻino a i ʻole ka pōʻino kaiapuni (Pinigin, 1993).
ʻO Siberian firmgeon he iʻa iʻa no Siberia; a he kiʻi aʻe i nā puna wai ʻo Siberian, ʻaʻole i loaʻa i nā wahi āpau. ʻO Siberian firmgeon kahi noho noho, kahi ʻāpana semi-aisle. Kūkulu i nā ʻōpala kūloko i nā loko a me nā ʻāpana o nā puna wai. Noho ʻo ia ma nā kahe o nā muliwai Siberia nui mai Ob i ke komohana a hiki i Kolyma ma ka hikina. Noho nō ia i ka Lake Baikal, ma nā lehelehe o ka Obskaya, Tazovskaya, Yenisei Gulf. Ma ke ʻākau, ua pālahalaha kona laulā ma waho aʻe o ka ʻAlika Arctic - a hiki i 74 ° N. ʻAʻole i komo ʻo Siberian firmgeon i ke kai. ʻO ka holo ʻana o kona ola holoʻokoʻa i ka wai wai, a loaʻa wale nā nūnū maʻamau o kēia iʻa i ka paʻakai palupalu (a 8% o) mau pūnaewele kūalalele. Noi ʻia ia ma ke ao holoʻokoʻa o Ob (3680 km), ma Irtysh - a hiki i Lake Zaysan a ʻoi aku ke kiʻekiʻe o ka Black Irtysh a hiki i ka pū ʻana o ke kai ʻo Kren, me ka Yenisei ma mua o ka hoʻoponopono ʻana - mai ka waha a hiki i 3200 km, nui loa aku iā Krasnoyarsk, i ka Lena - a i ka 3300 km ʻAʻole i lawa ka Kolyma, aia kahi kanaka paʻa ma Alasey, Indigirka a me Yana. I nā kahawai o Siberia, puka ia nā mea kiʻekiʻe loa i nā wahi delta, ʻo ia nā wahi nui o ka hānai ʻana.
ʻO ka hemahema o nā pono mua no ka nui o nā haʻawina ma nā kahawai liʻiliʻi, ʻo ka haʻalele ʻole i ka loiloi o ka hui ʻana o ka ʻola a me nā ʻano ʻona o ka ʻĀina i loko o ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai kūlohelohe i kā lākou mau kīʻaha i hana ai i ka hopena o nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole. ʻO ka hapa ʻole o nā wānana e hilinaʻi i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ke kūlana ma nā kahawai liʻiliʻi i alakaʻi ʻia ka wai wai a me ka salinization o nā ʻāina, kahi e hoʻemi ʻana i kā lākou huahana, a me ka hoʻoilo wai. ʻO ka mea mua ma ka wanana i ka pōʻaiapuni o ke kūlana a me ka hoʻokele ʻano kūloko o ka wai i loko o nā paʻu wai liʻiliʻi, ʻo ia ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ke ʻano o ka hoʻokō e kūwaho e pili ana i nā ʻano kīʻaha o nā kīʻaha pākahi, ka pilina ma waena o kāna mau hana a me kā lākou hana i ka hana o ka ecosystem ma ke ao holoʻokoʻa. Aia kekahi pono, ka mua o ka hoʻokaʻina o nā kīʻaha loilo a me ko lākou mālama, a me ka lua, no ka ʻike hohonu hou ʻana i nā ʻano kumu o ka hoʻopukapuka o kā lākou eʻae nei, ke aupuni hydrobiological, hoʻoholo i nā huahana, ka hana o ka hoʻokomo a me ka hana o nā mea haumia, a me ka mālama ʻana i nā kahawai mālama ʻia. Hiki i nā hopena o ia mau haʻawina ke kumu no ka wānana i nā loli i ka ʻōpū o nā ʻōpala wai [185, 189, 212, 234].
Ma kekahi mau pilikia, he paʻakikī a hoʻokaʻawale paha ka noi o nā ʻano i manaʻo ʻia ma muli o nā hiʻohiʻona kūikawā o nā ʻāpana o kēlā me kēia kanaka - ka ulu nui ʻana o ka irrigation kūlohelohe, kahi e hoʻokaʻawale i nā kūlana kūlohelohe o ka kahawai wai a me ka hoʻouluulu wai, ka wai kahawai nui, ka mismatch koʻikoʻi ma waena o ka wai a me lalo o ka wai ma lalo o nā ʻano wai ʻole. He mea koʻikoʻi paha ka hoʻomanaʻo ʻana o ka hoʻoponopono kūlohelohe o ka kahe o ka wai, kahi mea e pau ai i ka hiki o ke hoʻohana ʻana i ke ʻano o ka hydrological-hydro-geological ʻano o ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i nā kahawai wai no ka loiloi kūloko i ka pae o ka wai a me nā kumu wai kūlohelohe. No laila, hiki ke kuhikuhi ʻia ke ala o ka hoʻowalewale ʻana i nā ʻōkuhi wai me nā ʻāpana liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi i nā ʻano wai kūlohelohe. Ma nā kahawai i hoʻoponopono ʻia, ma ke alo o nā papa lōʻihi o ka nānā ʻana, no ka ana ʻana i ka hydrographs, pono e hoʻohana kekahi i ka ʻikepili o nā ana o ka hoʻolilo wai ma mua o ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ka hoʻoponopono kahe. I kekahi mau hihia, ma nā ʻāpana unregulated o ka muliwai, hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia ke ʻano o ka helu ʻana i ka kahe o lalo o nā kahe mai loko o nā hoʻololi i kona hoʻoheheʻe haʻahaʻa.
Kūʻē kekahi o nā pilikia kūkaʻi ma muli o ke kūkulu ʻana a me ka hana ʻana o nā lako wai. ʻO kēia ma muli o ka kokoke he hapalua o nā kahawai nui o ka honua. ʻO nā papa kīʻaha ma waena o 216, 155 mau ʻāina ʻelua, 36 a ʻekolu, 25 kā mana ʻia e ka 4 a me 12 mau ʻāina. ʻO nā muliwai nui he 25 ma ʻEulopa, he 13 mau waena. ʻO ka poʻe hoʻohana wai o nā ʻāina i aia i ka lalo o nā kahawai e hōʻeha i ka nui o ka hōʻeha ma muli o ka palaka a me nā kahawai o nā ʻike wai [52 - 55].
Ke hoʻomāhuahua nei ka kōpili kālā o ka Pūnaewele no nā hana ʻona e pili ana i nā ʻenehana "ʻōmaʻomaʻo" e pili ana i ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka mālama ʻana i nā waiwai kūlohelohe. a me ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i nā wahi o nā kūlanakauhale, a me nā ʻoihana “kaʻenehana”, ʻo ia ka hana e hoʻoikaika i nā ʻoihana kaiaulu. E hana ana nā ʻoihana papahana kaiāulu kālā ma 62 mau ʻāina. ʻO Brazil, Kina, India, Indonesia, Korea, a me Mexico hoʻi ka nui o nā hōʻaiʻē pilikino no nā papahana kūlohelohe.
I kekahi mau hihia, ua huki ʻia ka nānā ʻana i nā hopena i ʻike ʻia e nā mea hōʻeha, i hoʻohana nui ʻia i loko o kekahi mau ʻāina no ka hana o ka ʻāina, ʻoihana a me nā ʻenehana. Pēlā, ua hoʻonui ʻia ka nui o nā mea i loko o nā ʻauʻau wai nui "a me kekahi mau mililramika pākei pā, no ka nui o ka pala. Ua loaʻa i nā mea maʻi ma ka inu wai i loaʻa mai nā ʻano wai. ʻO kekahi o nā pilikia e kū mai ana ma mua o ka hōʻea ʻana i ka wai o nā kīʻaha wai nui ka pilikia o ka ʻōpala. I Kelemānia, loaʻa ka ʻike nui ʻo ka muliwai ʻo Necker ma muli o ka haumia o kāna wai me ka umu. Ma muli o ka nui o nā mea ʻea i loaʻa i ka mākeke, aia ka ʻike i ka ʻike ʻole o ka ʻike kino ʻana;
He ʻano wai kahe i loaʻa i kekahi manawa ma loko o nā kai lau moana (Andriyashev, 1954). Kahele nui ʻia i nā wai wai o ʻEulopa. Noho 'ia ma ka ʻāpana holoʻokoʻa o ʻEulopa, me ka ʻike ʻole o nā kahe Penina Kola (Berg, 19496, Sidorov, 1974). ʻO ka ʻike nui o kēia ʻano sculpin mai Western Siberia mai nā kīʻaha o nā kahawai Irtysh a me Katun (Chaban, Bogdanov, 1960, Gundrizer, 1966a, Fedorova, 1992) i kāhea ʻia i ka nīnau i ka ʻike o ka ʻike hou. ʻIa ʻike ʻike ʻia ke ʻano intraspecific. Malia paha kahi subspecies kūikawā o S. gobio koshewnikowi Gratzianov e noho ana ma Rūsia, 1907 kahi poʻo koa Russian. ʻO ka nui o kēia mau ʻano i nā wahi a pau e hoʻoemi ma muli o ka haumia o nā ʻauʻau wai. Ke komo nei i loko o ka papa inoa o nā iʻa ʻole i ka ʻEulopa a ma ka "Red Book of the RSFSR" a hoʻomaka ke komo i loko o ka "Red Book of Russia".
Mai nā mea i ʻōlelo ʻia, ua ukali ia e pili ana i ka nānā ʻana o ka hopena o ke hoʻololi ʻana o ke aniau i nā wai wai a ʻo kā lākou hoʻohana ʻana ʻaʻole wale nō he pilikia ʻenehana e pili ana i ke koho ʻana i nā palena kūpono o ka HCS. Pono ia i kahi loiloi hohonu e pili ana i nā ʻōnaehana kūlohelohe a me nā hoʻokele waiwai ma ke pae o nā kīʻaha kahawai a me ka ʻimi no nā hoʻopili i ʻike ʻia, ʻike pinepine. ʻO ka ʻimi noiʻi he hana hoʻoholo i hiki ke hoʻoholo ʻia e ka mea no ka lōʻihi o ka manawa o ka hoʻololi ʻana i ke aniau a me nā ʻano kikowaena interannual o nā mea pili, ʻoiaʻiʻo, he mea pono i nā poʻe loea o ka ʻaoʻao like.
ʻO ka hiʻohiʻona hydrometric maʻamau o ka ʻike wai o ka wai o ka wai kaila (ka mika o ka lōʻihi ma ka palena o ka m? / S), i nānā ʻia ma ke kumu o ka nānā ʻana i nā makahiki he mau makahiki.Eia nō naʻe, ʻaʻole i loaʻa mau ia mau ʻike lōʻihi, a ma ia mau ʻano, ʻike ʻia ka hydrology o nā loina kahawai he nui i ʻike ʻia e nā ʻano loiloi, ma nā ʻano hoʻohālikelike me nā kahawai i noiʻi ʻia, aia ma nā ʻano like ʻole geophysical.
ʻO ka nānā ʻana i nā hopena i loaʻa i ka hopena o ka hopena o ka huli ʻana i ke kaʻina o ka hiʻona a me nā kiko o ke aniani, ke kō, ka ʻōpū, a me nā mea i loaʻa i nā lepo i hōʻike ʻia nā hana ʻōlima i nā hopu. ʻO ke kumu kēia i ka pōʻaiapuni o ke anuanu, pono kahi hoʻololi o ke aʻo ʻana i nā loina no ka hoʻokele ʻana i nā kahe wai i nā wahi i loaʻa, inā paha ma o ka hoʻomalu ʻana o ka mālama ʻāina a me nā kaʻina hana o ka ʻāina. Pono kēia i ka loiloi hohonu e pili ana i nā ʻōnaehana kūlohelohe a me nā hoʻokele waiwai ma ka pae o nā waihona wai ʻauʻau i ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i nā pilikia o ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka kahe kahawai a me nā hoʻokele waiwai.
ʻO ka hoʻonohonoho maʻamau maʻamau o nā muliwai e ka lōʻihi. Wahi a kēia ʻano, ʻoi aku ka pōkole o nā muliwai ma mua o 100 km e like me ka liʻiliʻi (Vodogretsky, 1990). Hoʻohana pinepine ʻia ka manaʻo o nā kahawai liʻiliʻi i nā kahawai wai o ka ʻāina nui wale nō a hōʻike i ka hopena o nā mea kūlohelohe a me nā mea e pili ana i ka nui ma nā wahi ʻāina. Pono e hoʻomaopopo ʻia he pākuʻi paha nā ʻāpana o ka muliwai ma lalo o 2000 km2 i nā kūlana o ka palena no ka hoʻokumu ʻana o ka kahe o lalo. Pēlā e like me ke kānāwai, e kahe wale ana o nā kahe me nā wahi ʻāpana wale nō o ka wai o nā koina keʻokeʻo o luna (Quaternary sediment). ʻO kēia, ka mea e wehewehe i ka nāwaliwali o ka pau ʻana o ka wai wai o kahi wai liʻiliʻi loa i ka wā i loli ai ke ʻano o kona wahi hopu.
Ke lilo nei ka wai i mea kumu waiwai e hoʻopili ai i ka hoʻoili ʻana o nā mana huaʻai, a pau wale ke lako wai. kumu liʻiliʻi e hoʻonā ai i nā pilikia socio-economic, e komo pū ana i ka waiwai o nā ʻoihana ʻenehana a me nā mahiʻai. ʻOiai ke ʻike ʻia o ka pōmaikaʻi, aia i kēia manawa ke kaila o ka hoʻokele wai (i ka pae o ka pono o ka wai i kona loaʻa ʻana i ka puna) i loko o nā waihona wai he nui i hōʻemi ʻia me nā manaʻo koʻikoʻi, aia nō nā kumu nui: ® ke kūlike o nā kumu kūʻai wai-wai e pili ana i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai wai - ma nā wahi noho a hoʻokūkū ʻia ke kihi hema (nā kīʻaha o nā ʻEleʻele, Azov, Caspian a me Aral Seas), kahi i hoʻokumu ʻia ai ka hana o 80% o nā ʻenehana a me 90% o nā huahana mahiʻai 15-15% o ka kahe o ka wai, ® nā ʻōnaehana o nā kahe nui o nā ʻāina ākea o ka ʻāina i pani ʻia e ke kai kūloko, i mea e mālama ai i nā hoʻoponopono hydrological a me ka hydrobiological e koi ai ka wai o ka wai i loko o ka wai o ka wai o nā wai, nā ʻano o nā kahe o ka waena o waena. wai. ʻAʻole ke kūlike nā ka laikini o ka intra-makahiki holoʻokoʻa i ka hōʻiliʻili intra-makahiki makahiki i nā koi o ka wai, akā hiki nō ke hoʻonā hou ʻia. ua kaupalena ʻia ka holo, no kēia ka nele o nā kūlana topographic no ka hoʻokumu ʻana i nā kaila nui a i ʻole hiki ke hoʻomaopopo ʻia ka wai o ka ʻāina mahiai, nā mea waiwai nui a koʻikoʻi i ka mōʻaukala, nā ʻina wai, a ma ka wai ka mea e pono ai ka mālama i kekahi kiko o ka wai i hōʻoia ʻia e nā kuʻuna kūikawā no ka hōʻoia i nā kūlana no ka lawena o ka iʻa, ka inu wai nā pōʻino, ka mālama ʻana i nā kūlana maʻemaʻe, ka hana o nā mea kanu uila hydroelectric, ka mea hana i ka hoʻouna hohonu, ® i kekahi mau hihia kahi hoʻokuʻu anu mua loa i nā manawa ma mua o nā noi no ka hoʻoneʻe wai i nā kahawai.
ʻIke aku i kahi kūlana koʻikoʻi i ka hoʻololi o ka ʻāpana terestrial o nā kaila o luna o ka lithosphere e hoʻokani ʻia e ka hana a ke kanaka. Ma ka ʻāpana e pili ana i ka pākuʻu a me nā waiwai ʻāina, ua ʻike mākou i ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka hakakā a me ka palupalu i hoʻomaʻamaʻa nui ʻia ma muli o ka hoʻonui ʻana i nā mea anthropogenic. Ua hōʻike ʻia kahi hoʻokaumaha i ka ʻaoʻao waena o ka ʻeleʻele o ke Kai Kūʻē ʻo Pahuola i ka moana. ʻO kēia kūlana ka maʻamau no nā puna wai he nui o ka honua me ka nui o ke anthropogenic koʻikoʻi. Ua hoʻonui pū ʻia ka holomua ʻana. ʻO ka mea hope loa, aia kahi mana hou, ʻike nui a wikiwiki hoʻi, pau ka anthropogenic o ka waiwai lithosphere - ke puhi ʻana o nā wahiʻa mineral. No laila, ke hoʻololi i ka hana o kahi kanaka i ke kuleana nui i ka denudation a me ka hoʻopau ʻana i nā mea paʻa mai ka ʻāina, a hiki ke koho ʻia kēia hana ma ka 60% o ka nui o ka waiwai o ka denudation.
Kaomi wai o nā muliwai liʻiliʻi. Hydroecology, e like me N.I. Alekseevsky, - kahi kula ʻepekema hou e aʻo ana i nā kānāwai o ka hoʻohui maikaʻi ʻana o ka heluna kanaka, ke ʻekekele, nā wai wai, nā ʻĀina e hoʻopili ai ka hoʻomohala ʻana o nā mana huaʻāina o ka ʻāina i hui pū ʻia me ka hōʻoia ʻana o ka palekana hydroecological, me ka hōʻemi i nā pōʻino o ka nohona mai nā hanana ʻolima maikaʻi. Hōʻike i ke ala maoli o ka mālama ʻana i nā kaʻina hoʻokele waiwai kūlohelohe i nā loilo wai, ke ʻimi nei i ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa kūpono ma waena o nā hana o ka hāpai ʻana i ke kiʻekiʻe o ka hoʻokele a me ka mālama i nā nohona maikaʻi, ka noho ʻana o ka wai a me ka honua kūloʻo. ʻO nā mea pili kūpono, ʻo ia ka noʻonoʻo ʻana o kēia mau hiʻohiʻona i loko o nā pā wai liʻiliʻi.
Loaʻa ka ʻōpiopio hope loa o Furbish (Pedicularis furbishiae) ma ka muliwai. ʻO ka Maine i kahi wahi e neʻe nei i ka waipū maʻamau [Maiges, 1990]. Hoʻopau pinepine nā lolo i kekahi mau mea kanu, akā i ka manawa like i ka hana ʻana o nā hale hou i ke kahakai e kūpono i ka hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana o nā iwi hou. ʻO ke aʻo ʻana i kekahi kanaka i kēlā me kēia kanaka e hāʻawi i kahi kiʻi piha o nā ʻano, no ka mea ua noho pōkole kekahi. A ʻo ka metapopulation ma kēia ke ʻano ka hui kūpono e aʻo ai, a ʻo ka ʻāpana muliwai he pūʻulu kūpono o ka hoʻokele.
Hoʻokumu ʻia ka hoʻolālā o ka ʻoihana o nā wahi ʻike i nā puna wai o Moscow ma nā ʻano a me nā hopena o ka zoning hoʻokele wai. Ua hoʻomohala ʻia nā kaʻina loiloi wai i ka makahiki 1950 e ka Hydroproject Institute a ua hoʻopau ʻia i ka 1980s e ka Institute of Water Problems o ka USSR Academy of Science. Ma ke kūpono, hoʻomohala ʻia ka hoʻomohala ʻana o ka USSR e ka hui o Soyuzvodproekt. Hoʻohana ʻo ia i ke kumu loina ʻo-basin a me ka manawa like i hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā peʻa wai i nā kumu nui a me nā mea ʻē aʻe. I loko o nā kīʻaha nui, ka mea e loaʻa ai ka paona Volga (ʻāpono i ka ʻāpana kūwaho i loko o nā palena kūlohelohe no ka ʻona hoʻokele wai), hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā ʻeleʻele hoʻi i loko, kahi i kapa ʻia hoʻi nā wahi hoʻokele wai. Hoʻopili ʻia nā pae hoʻomohala wai i nā ʻāpana noho a hōʻike i nā ʻāpana o ka ʻauʻau nui. Ua koho ʻia nā ʻāpana hoʻonā i nā kahawai e hele ana i nā palena o nā republics a i ʻole nā wahi waiwai (i kekahi manawa ma nā palena o nā wahi), i nā ʻāpana o nā mea i kūkulu ʻia a hoʻolālā ʻia ma nā kaawai, ma nā waha o nā mea nui, ma nā kaila o ka nui o nā kaila o ka nui a i ʻole paha i hoʻolālā ʻia, ka hāʻawi ʻana i ka wai a me nā ʻōnaehana ʻōpala. ʻaoʻao o ka muliwai nui. Maʻalahi ka ʻike maka, no laila, hiki iā lākou, ma ka ʻaoʻao hoʻokahi, i hāʻawi ʻana i ka ʻike i ka hoʻopale ʻana i nā ʻāina, nā republics a me ka ʻāina i ka holoʻokoʻa, a ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, he mea waiwai nui e hoʻoholo ai i nā hana pyrological o nā hana pyrotechnic.
ʻO ka melika o nā puʻu ʻōpala kekahi o nā mea ʻai no nā muliwai. ʻO ka mahele o nā meaʻai mai glacial ma ka holoʻokoʻa o ka hapanui o nā muliwai mai loko mai o nā glacier a liʻiliʻi loa a aia wale nō ma ke kokoke koke o ka aniani i hiki ke hiki i 50% o ka runoff makahiki a kau i kekahi manawa i keu kēia waiwai. Kūkulu ʻia ke koena o kēia mau kahawai e nā kumuwaiwai ʻē aʻe, ʻo ia hoʻi ka lau ʻana o ka hau hoʻoilo ma luna o ka lewa a me ka hoʻopili ʻana i kona mau ʻāpana. Ke emi nei ka mamao mai ka glacier a me ka piʻi ʻana o ka glaciation o ka ʻauwai kahawai, ua hoʻemi nui ʻia ka hapa nui o ka mea momona. Eia nō naʻe, ka loaʻa ʻana o nā glacier i ke kahe wai ma nā ʻano kūʻokoʻa o ka kahe e kahe ana a me nā pae i loko o ka makahiki a he hopena koʻikoʻi ia no ka loli o ka kahe makahiki o kēlā mau kahe, e hoʻemi nui ana ia. ʻO ka emi ʻana o ka hoʻohālikelike o ka loli C »o ka nui o ka makahiki holo ua nui ia ma muli o ka hoʻonui ʻana o ka holo i nā makahiki me ka ua haʻahaʻa, i ka nui o ka pae o ka hanohano o ka haneli. ʻAʻole hiki ʻo C "ma mua o 0.10-0.15. No nā muliwai lemona o ka hāʻawi ʻana o ka hau, e like me ka mea i ʻike ʻia, ʻike ʻia ʻo C "i 0.80-00.90 ma mua o kēia waiwai.
The All-Union Scientific and Technical Conference on the Protection of Surface and Groundwaters from Pollution, i hōʻuluʻulu ʻia e All-Union Council of Scientific and Technical Societies e hui pū me nā ministies e makemake ʻia (Tallinn, 1967), i loko o kāna mau manaʻo e koi nui ai ka hoʻokō i kahi hoʻonohonoho ʻana, ua loaʻa ka mana nui. ʻO ke kumu nui o kēia mau hana pono ka hoʻonohonoho ʻana i nā ʻoihana ʻenehana me ka nānā pono no ka mālama ʻana i ka wai o lalo a me lalo o ka wai, ka hoʻolālā ʻana a me ka hana ʻana i nā ʻōnaehana ʻōpala o nā poʻomanaʻo a me nā ʻōnaehana hulahula e pili ana i nā puna wai, nā hana hoʻomohala ʻenehana i nā hana hana i ka pono o ka pale wai, ka hoʻonohonoho ʻana o kahi pūnaehana hoʻohui o ka moku o ka mālama ʻana i ka wai. i nā kino wai a me ka hōʻoia ʻana i ka hoʻonohonoho ʻana ʻana o nā hana a nā keʻena makemake āpau, ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka noiʻi ma ka ka hoʻomohala ʻana o nā kumu ʻike ʻepekema no ka mālama ʻana i ka wai o ka wai a me nā kumu wai, a me ka hoʻokumu ʻana i ka manaʻo paʻa ʻono kūpono o nā mea ʻino i nā kino wai i ka manaʻo o ke olakino lehulehu, nā lawaiʻa a me nā ʻano wai ʻē aʻe, ka hoʻolōʻihi a me ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ke kānāwai wai-maʻemaʻe.
Hoʻonui pinepine ka hohonu o kahi ʻoki e hoʻopau me ka hoʻonui nui o ka wahi. Ma keia hana ana i lalo o nā kūlana like ʻole, ʻo ka waiwai o ka nui o ka wai mākaukau ma muli o ka wai ʻūhū wai ʻole ka nui o ka wai liʻiliʻi a me ka wā no ka wai ma waena o nā kahe wai, ua hoʻopiha piha ʻia no ka hopena o ka hoʻoulu wai hoʻoheheʻe. ʻO nā ʻokoʻa ma ka kahe o nā kahawai liʻiliʻi a me ka liʻiliʻi e like me ke kahele ʻana zonal o ka hohonu o ka wai i lalo o nā wahi me ka wai haʻalulu a hoʻonui ʻia i nā wahi ulu. Ke hoʻohālikelike nei i ka nui o ka wai holohelu makahiki me ka nui o ka ʻauʻau muliwai, eia kahi ʻano i hoʻopili ʻia: ʻo kēia wahi i kēia hihia kahi hōʻailona o ka hohonu o ka papa holoi, ka hoʻopiha piha ʻana i ka wai kahe e ka wai o nā kahawai, ʻaʻole ia he ʻano genetic.
Ua lohi loa ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana o ka ʻike geoecological i ke Kaua waena. Ke ʻike nei i nā kānāwai maoli o nā mea kime e kūloi i nā mea ʻenehana a me nā mea noiʻi, ʻaʻole lākou e ʻae iā lākou e hoʻohiki iā lākou iho a me nā mea ʻē aʻe. "- ua hoʻomaopopo ʻo ia. Ke haʻi nei mākou i nā haʻi kūkākūkā e pili ana i ka mining a me ka metallurgy, aia i ka makahiki XVI. heluhelu ma ke kūlanakauhale o Jáchymov (Czech Republic) I. Matesius (1504-1565). ʻO ka puke o ka mea mua o lākou, "The Origin of Sources," i paʻi ʻia i ka makahiki 1674, ua kau i nā kumu ʻepekema o kahi loiloi wai i ka loiloi i ka lewa - wai kahe kūwaha wai (Shvartsev, 1996). Ma 1735, ua hoʻopuka ʻo K. Linney (1707-1778) i ka hana "System of Nature", kahi i waiho ai nā kumu o ka ʻauhau ʻauhau hou o ka honua kūlohelohe. Eia naʻe, he laha no ka ʻike o ke kai kūlohelohe a me ke ʻano o ke kanaka me ia e hāʻule i ka wā o ka ʻepekema a me ka ʻepekema ʻepekema.
ʻO kahi mea nui i ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka hana o nā kālā waiwai ma nā ʻoihana mālama wai, ʻoiaʻiʻo, ʻo ka hoʻomaʻamaʻa o kā lākou hoʻohana ʻana i nā ʻano ʻenehana. Hōʻike pinepine ʻia ka hoʻomohala hana i ka hoʻomohala wai o ka ʻoihana wai (mai ka ʻike ʻana o ka hoʻolālā kūpono) hōʻike ʻia i ka hemahema ʻana no ke kau ʻana i nā ʻōnaehana “awelika” no ka loaʻa ʻana o ka wai a me ka hoʻopuka ʻana i nā hoʻokele lepo mai nā ʻoihana waiwai. ʻO ka mānoʻokahi o "ka hoʻonui ʻana i ke kiʻekiʻe o ka wai o ka wai" a i ʻole ka "hoʻonui ʻana i ka nui o ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻana i ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe ma ka waho" ʻaʻole hiki ʻole ke hoʻoholo no kēlā me kēia ʻenehana e pili ana i ka hoʻolālā kuʻuna. ʻO kēia mau waiwai (ma muli o ka hohonu o ka wai ʻole o ka wai, ka hoʻemi ʻana a me nā koi no ka maikaʻi o ka wai i loko o ka muliwai), ka mea maopopo, ʻokoʻa i waena o nā ʻāpana ʻāpana o ka wai a ʻo ia nō hoʻi no ka ʻoihana. ʻO nā hoʻokolohua helu ʻia e pili ana i ka hoʻoponopono hou ʻana o nā kālā hoʻopukapuka kālā e hōʻike ana ma muli o ka hoʻohana pono ʻana i nā ʻoihana hana, hiki ke hoʻemi ʻia ka nui o nā kumukūʻai kālā e pili ana i nā hana palekana o ka wai.
ʻO ka nui o nā pae hierarchical o ka hoʻoholo ʻana i nā hoʻoholo kuleana wai e pili ana i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o nā territorial i nā kūlohelohe o ka hoʻokūkū kūlohelohe a me ka paʻa o ka pilina ma waena o lākou. No ka mea ʻo ka mana nui o nā ʻāpana o nā ʻoihana nui, e ʻike ʻia e nā mea waiwai e hoʻoholo ʻia ana e ka mokuʻāina o ka ʻepekema o ka ʻāina, ʻo ka hierarchy federal kekahi ʻāina kiʻekiʻe loa hoʻi. Eia eia ka nānā ʻana o ka paʻakikī o ke kūlana kaiapuni ma kahi āpau a no nā ʻāina pākahi ke hoʻomau ʻia, ke hoʻokumu ʻia nei ka manaʻo o ka pilikia o ke kaiapuni a, ma kēia kumu, hoʻokumu ʻia kahi kulekele mālama kūlohelohe. Ma kēia pae, ua hoʻoholo ʻia nā kuleana a me nā kuleana o nā ʻĀina hoʻokele waiwai o ka moku'āina, a me nā loiloi o ke kālā a me ke kōkua kālā no nā hana mālama ʻona. ʻO ka loiloi o ka hopena o ka hana waiwai i ka wai a me nā kumu ʻāina a me nā kūlana socio-economic, ka hoʻolālā ʻana i nā hoʻolālā no ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā ʻano e pale ai i nā wai o ka wai a me nā hōʻemi. Ma ka paona o nā kīkaha wai, ua ʻike ʻia nā hana nui o ka hoʻokele wai o ka wai, hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma muli o nā makahiki he nui o ka ʻike hydrological, ke ʻano o ka pae ʻana o ka waihona mālama wai a me kā lākou pilina me ke kaiāulu.
Me kaʻae o ke kaona kikoʻī, nā kumu o nā wai a me nā pilikia e pili ana i nā pilina ma waena o ka mdc. I ka wā e hana ai a hoʻonui i nā kauaka a me nā ʻoihana ʻenehana, ka poʻe e hoʻopau i nā waiwai kūlohelohe maikaʻi loa - wai, ʻae ʻia ia e hoʻohalahala ʻia e ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana i ka wai lāʻau hoʻomehana a me nā wahi hana hale i nā wahi kokoke, e hoʻohana ai i kēia ʻano hana ʻoi loa a maʻalahi. I ka wā i hala, ua alakaʻi kēia hana i nā pilikia (akā, ʻaʻole no kēlā poʻe e hoʻohaumia i nā kino wai), i ka luku ʻia ʻana o nā mea ola e noho ana i ka wai, no ka hōʻeha ʻana i ka mahiʻai, hana i ka pōpilikia i ke olakino lehulehu a ua hoʻonui nui ʻia nā kumukūʻai ʻoihana. I ka hopena hope loa, ua ʻike nā mana olakino, nā mea ʻai, nā lawaiʻa o ka iʻa a me ka poʻe ʻoihana i ka hōʻemi ʻole ʻia ma muli o ke koi ʻana i nā kānāwai o ke kanaka no ka uku ʻana i nā kānāwai kūlohelohe. ʻO ka holomua maoli i ka hōʻemi ʻana i nā haumia o nā wai wai i hoʻokō wale ʻia ma hope o nā moku'āina, nā mokuʻāina, nā kīʻaha o nā kahawai a me nā ʻāina ʻē i hoʻopuka pono i nā makemake āpau i pili i kēia pilikia. Inā hoʻi i ka hakakā ʻana i ka wai hoʻohālikelike o nā wai wai nā makemake o kekahi pūʻulu o nā kānaka, a laila ʻaʻole pono ka hakakā