• KEKAHI MAUA
• Ka manawa ola a me kahi noho (manawa): aneane ma kahi o Mesozoic (210 - 65.5 miliona mau makahiki i hala)
• Loaʻa: waena o XVII kenekulia., Bavaria (Kelemānia)
• Aupuni: Nā holoholona
• Era: Mesozoic
• Kuhi: Nā Chordates
• Māhele: ʻĀina
• Kūwaho: Nā Pūnaewele Puka Puka
• Pākuʻi: Ramforinhs a me Pterodactyls
• Kāohi: Pterosaur
• Genus: Pterosaurs

Hiki iā lākou ke koho pololei ma luna o nā ea mokulele. Ua hala ko lākou ola i ka wā o ke kau ʻana o nā dinosaurs a me nā kai ʻaina kai. Aia he 16 o nā ʻohana o pterosaurs, akā paʻakikī ke ʻike ma muli o ka pale ʻana i ka mālama ʻole ʻia.

Ua loaʻa mua ma ka waena o ke kenekulia XVIII. Zavru, ʻaʻole i hāʻawi nā poʻe ʻepekema i kahi inoa. Akā i ka makahiki 1809, ua hiki hope i ka paleontologist a me zoologist Cuvier Georges ke kūkulu nei he ʻano manu lele kēia o nā reptile a hāʻawi iā mākou i ka inoa kaulana loa o nā dinosaurs.

Ma aneane he 60 mau mea o ka pterosaurs, ʻo ka nui loa o lākou he terestrial - azhdarchids (ʻo ka mea kiʻekiʻe loa ka 8m i ke kiʻekiʻe, ʻimi lākou i nā dinosaurs) a lele lele - Ornithoheirus (nā wingpan mai 12 a 15 mau mika), he mau mea ʻuʻoni ia.

He aha kāu mea e ai ai a me ke ʻano o ka nohona

ʻO ka hapa nui o ke ola i hala i ka lewa, i kekahi manawa, kekahi mau ʻano, noho lākou a ʻūlū i loko o ka wai. Ua noho lākou i loko o nā ʻeke, hiki ke hana i nā holo lōʻihi, hoʻohana pinepine ʻia ka hoʻolālā ma luna o ka ʻāina a me ke kai. ʻO ka zavras o ka pēpē hou mai ka ʻohu a i ka manawa mua ʻaʻole i like ʻole i nā nui nui, akā ua ʻike mua i ka lele a loaʻa kā lākou ʻai ponoʻī.

ʻO ka poʻe nui ka mea i hānai i nā holoholona terestrial, akā i kekahi manawa, e like me nā mea liʻiliʻi, ke ʻimi nei lākou i nā iʻa e lele mai luna o ka wai o ka wai. Ua liʻiliʻi ka wahine ma mua o nā kāne, a ʻoi aku ka liʻiliʻi ma ka poʻo ma ke poʻo.

Nā kikoʻī kikoʻī o ke kino

Mālama ʻia ka ʻōpū ma kahi iwi. Nui nā ʻano lau me ka lauoho ma ke kino, ʻāʻī a me ke poʻo (2-4 mm) a me kekahi mau membran ma waena o nā manamana lima me nā wāwae, ua uhi pū ʻia i ka hulu hipa.

Ua hoʻomaʻamaʻa ʻia nā kihi, no laila hiki i ka hoʻomau ke noho i loko o ka ea no ka manawa lōʻihi ʻole i ʻole pilikia.

Poʻo

ʻO ka hapa nui o kēia mau dinosaurs he mau ʻōpū palu ma luna o ko lākou mau poʻo; he ʻano like a me keʻano. Ua kōkua ʻo ia e mālama i ka mokulele, lawelawe ʻo ia i ke ʻano o ka hoʻohālikelike a me nā wahine huki.

Pēlā ke ʻano o ka lolo saurine e like me kahi avian, e hoʻopiha i ka ana piha o ka cerebral. Ua hoʻomōhala maikaʻi ka ʻike o ka palaualelo a me ke ʻano o ka pauna, a maikaʻi hoʻi nā maka, e like me ka ʻike ʻia ʻana e kā lākou ʻano hana.

ʻO nā ʻōpala, e like me ka ʻāʻī, elongated. ʻAʻohe o nā mea ʻē aʻe i ka niho; ua lawa wale lākou i ka iʻa.

ʻO ka mōʻaukala noiʻi Pterosaur

Ma 1784, ua hana ʻo Alessandro Collini, ka mea nāna i hōʻuluʻulu i nā kolamu nui ma Mannheim, i nā moʻolelo mua o nā koena o pterosaurs, ʻaʻole naʻe ia i ʻike i kēia mea i loaʻa. I ka makahiki 1801, ʻike ʻia ka Farani anatomist ʻo Georges Cuvier i ʻike ʻia nā mōʻīlala i nā koena o nā ʻano ʻē aʻe i ʻike ʻia e hiki ke lele. I ka makahiki 1809 ua kapa ʻia ʻo Cuvier i ka holoholona "pterodactyl."

I ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā kenekulia 19, ua manaʻo nā kānaka ʻepekema aia he ʻelua wale nō ʻekolu o nā pterosaurs. I kēlā mau lā, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka ola o nā mea aloha i kēia mau holoholona. Akā i ka hopena o ke kenekulia, ua ʻike nā kānaka ʻepekema i mau ʻanoʻano hou a ua māhele ʻia ka pterosaurs i ʻelua mau pūʻulu. ʻO ka hui kekahi kahi ʻōʻō lōʻihi, nā pōpoki pōkole, nā pūliki liʻiliʻi, a me nā ʻōkole orbital mua. ʻO kēia hui o nā pterosaurs i kapa ʻia ʻo ramforinha.

ʻO ka lua hui i hoʻopili i ka pterosaurs me nā pālima loloa, kahi ʻeke pōkole a me nā pūlaki, i hui pū ʻia me nā foramen orterior. Ua kapa ʻia kēia hui "pterodactyls" ma hope o Georges Cuvier. ʻAʻole i like me rumphorinchs, loaʻa i ka pterodactyl ka poʻo i ko lākou mau poʻo. Akā i ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā kenekulia XXI, ua ʻike nā kānaka ʻepekema i ke ʻano o ka ramforinhs, nona ka crest i luna o kā lākou poʻo.

Pīhoihoi nā kānaka ʻepekema i ka manawa o ka makahiki 21, ua ʻike ʻia kekahi ʻano o ka pterosaurs ʻaʻole ia i nā hui ʻelua. ʻO ka hapa nui o kēia pterosaurs i loaʻa ma Kina a me ʻEnelani. ʻO kēia mau pterosaurs he mau lāʻau pōkole a me kahi huelo lōʻihi. ʻO kēia ka mea maʻamau i nā ramforinhs. Akā i ka like ʻana ko lākou iwi puʻe e like me nā pterodactyls: ua kūlike ka puʻukaua orbital i nā ʻuʻuku. Ua kapa ʻia kēia hui o pterosaurs wukonopterids a ke hoʻopaʻa 'ia nei i nā kikoʻī. Hiki i kēia ʻano ke ʻike i ka nui e pili ana i ka ulu ʻana o ka pterodactyl mai nā ramforins.

Nā ʻano noiʻi

ʻImi pinepine nā ʻepekema i nā pterosaurs i nā spossil fossil i mālama ʻia i loko o nā hale waihona puke ma ka honua. ʻO nā hōʻiliʻili maikaʻi loa ma ʻEulopa, ʻo ia hoʻi: ma ka Hale Hōʻikeʻike o ke Kumuwaiwai kūlohelohe i Lākana, ma ka Bavarian State Archaeological Collection ma Munich, i loko o ka Mokuʻāina ʻo Natural History ma Karlsruhe. Aia nō kekahi mau haneli haneli i loko o nā hale kalani ma Kina.

Ke hana nei kekahi poʻe noiʻi i nā hana ma ka hoʻāʻo e ʻike i nā ʻano lāʻau hou o ka pterosaurs. ʻO kēia mau hoʻāʻo ʻeha, no ka mea he liʻiliʻi loa nā iwi o pterosaurs, a loaʻa pinepine ka manawa kūpono e pau ʻia ka huakaʻi. Eia nō naʻe, aia kekahi mau wahi i ka honua kahi i ʻike ai ʻoe i nā koena o nā pterosaurs. Akā, ʻaʻole aneane e hele mau i nā ʻōpala holoʻokoʻa i laila. Loaʻa ʻo Roland Poskl e pili ana i kahi 50 mau koʻi a pau i nā pterosaurs i kona ola. Akā ua hana pākahi ʻo ia iho no kāna hōʻiliʻili o nā pua.

Ke ʻoluʻolu ʻo ka wehe ʻana i nā iwi o nā pterosaurs mai nā iwi o ka dinosaurs maʻa maʻalahi. Hōʻalo nā iwi Dinosaur i ka hakahaka, akā ʻaʻole like me ka hollow e like me ka pterosaurs. ʻO nā iwi o nā ʻēheu o ka pterosaurs he lōʻihi a lahilahi, a he ʻoluʻolu e hoʻomaopopo. Ma muli o ka lawe ʻana o nā pterosaur i nā reptiles holoʻokoʻa, ʻokoʻa ka kāwili a lākou i nā ʻōpū o nā holoholona ʻē aʻe.

ʻO ka hoʻololiʻana o ka hiki ke lele

ʻO nā pterosaur mua i puka mai no kahi o 230 miliona mau makahiki i ka makahiki o Upper Triassic ma nā wahi alpine o Northern Italy, Western Austria a me Switzerland. Ua hele mai nā ʻōpiopio hope loa i ka hopena o ka Cretaceous. Hoʻokomo ka poʻe'ōpiopio i ka pterosaurs i ka quetzalcoatlus mai Texas, hatsegopteryks mai Romania, a me aramburgian mai Ioredane. Ua make kēia mau mea make i ka 66 miliona mau makahiki i hala aku o ka hāʻule ʻana o ka meteorite e holoi ana i ka maka o ka honua a me nā holoholona nui. No laila, ua noho ka pterosaurs ma ka honua no 164 miliona mau makahiki. Akā hiki paha iā lākou ke ola lōʻihi, no ka mea, ʻaʻole i loaʻa i nā poʻe ʻepekema nā kūpuna o nā pterosaurs.

I ka hopena, ʻo ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ka loli o ka hiki ke lele i pterosaurs i lilo i pilikia. ʻOkoʻa nā ʻano o nā ʻēheu o nā pterosaurs i ka ʻano o nā ʻēheu o nā manu, nā ʻalā a me nā mea inikini, ʻoiai he mau hiʻohiʻona like kēia mau ʻano āpau. Ke ʻimi nei nā poʻe ʻepekema e hoʻomaopopo i ke ʻano o nā ʻēheu o nā pterosaurs. Ua mālama ʻia ke koena o nā mea nui a me nā mea liʻiliʻi. Ua mālama pono ʻia kekahi mau iwi, a ʻike ʻoe pehea e hana ʻia ai kēlā me kēia. Aia kekahi mau hiʻohiʻona hoihoi mai Kelemānia a me Kazakhstan, nāna i mālama i ka palu pulu manu. Wahi a kēia mau loiloi, aia nā pterosaurs i kahi membrane lele, mai ka ʻāʻī o ke poʻo a me ka pulelima, mai ka piko o ka manamana lima a i ka lima lima a mai ka leʻaleʻa a ma kekahi. Ma ka manawa like, ua mālama kaʻawale ʻia nā wāwae, a ʻoi aku ka nui o ka membrane lele.

ʻO kekahi mau ʻano o ka pterosaur Cretaceous i loaʻa ma Brazil a me Kina, a me nā ʻano o ka Late Jurassic manawa i loaʻa ma Kelemānia, hiki ke ʻike i ke ʻano kūloko o ka membrane lele a nānā aku i nā ʻili o nā ʻili, nā kīʻaha koko, a me nā ʻalaʻū i loko o laila. ʻOiai kekahi o nā kino pterodactyl i loaʻa ka hulu manu, ʻaʻohe hulu o nā hulu manu e lele ana.

ʻAʻole i loaʻa i nā ʻepekema nā ʻano kikowaena e pili ana i ka lele pterodactyls a me ko lākou mau kūpuna holo manu ʻole. No laila, ʻaʻole maopopo i ka loaʻa ʻana o nā ehe a pterosaurs. Akā hiki iā ʻoe ke trace i ke kaʻina o ka hōʻemi ʻana i ka manamana lima ʻelima, ka lōʻihi o ka manamana lima ʻehā, a i nā ʻano ma hope o nā ʻano - he lending lōʻihi o nā iwi metacarpal. Ua kū ʻia kahi iwi pterygoid hou ma hope o ka wīwī, hiki iā ia ke pale i ka mua o ka membrane lele. He mea nui ia no ka pale ʻana. ʻO ka paena nunui deltopectoral nui ma ka poʻohiwi e hōʻike ana ua lele nā ​​pterosaurs i ko lākou mau eheu. Akā ʻoi aku ka nui o nā manawa nui e lilo i ka lewa.

[hoʻoponopono] ʻike pili

ʻO ka maʻamau i loko o ka papa o nā reptile, ʻoiai he mau mea hoʻoluʻu ʻia lākou. He nui nā maʻi o ka pterosaurs me nā manu, ʻoiai ʻaʻole lākou nā kūpuna, e like me ka dinosaurs. No laila, ua ʻōwili nā iwi o ka pterosaurs i piha i ka ea, e like me nā iwi o nā manu. E like me nā manu, he mau keel ka pterosaurs, kahi i pili ai nā mea pili i ka lele, a he ulu ulu maikaʻi, nona ke kuleana no ka hana e pili pū ana me ka lele.

Ua ala aʻe lākou i ka 228 miliona mau makahiki i ka Late Triassic a lilo i hope i ka hopena o ka Cretaceous manawa o ka Mesozoic wā i ka wā Cretaceous - ua hoʻopau nei ʻo Paleogene 66 miliona mau makahiki i hala.

Nui kā lākou: nā mea ʻuʻuku liʻiliʻi, e like me Mīkini pale pāhiola, he mau ʻēheu o 25 cm, nā ʻōpiopio nui loa, 'O Arambourgiania philadelphiae, Hatzegopteryx thambema a ʻO Quetzalcoatlus ʻākau hiki aku i ka eheu o ka 1013 mika.

He mau holoholona lele nā ​​manu Pterosaurs.

Hoʻopili ʻia nā ʻēheu o ka pterosaurs e kekahi membrane o ka ʻili a me nā kiko. ʻO ka membrane nui i hoʻopili ʻia i ka manamana lima elongated o ka mua a paʻa i nā ʻaoʻao o ke kino i nā kuʻekuʻe. ʻO nā membranes kahi hoʻonohonoho paʻakikī maoli o nā ʻano hana i hana ʻia no ka holo huakaʻi. ʻO nā ʻēheu o waho (mai ke kihi o ka manamana lima a i ka ʻāʻī) i hoʻopaʻa ʻia me nā iwi spaces i kapa ʻia ʻo actinofibrils. Ua hana ʻia ʻo Actinofibrils ʻokoʻa i hoʻokahi ʻāpana ʻokoʻa, kahi ʻāpana like me ke aniani. ʻAʻole maopopo ka hana maoli o actinofibril, ʻo ia ka mea nana i lawe ai lākou. Aia i ka mea hoʻonani (keratin, nā māla kikokiko, nā mea hoʻoulu) e hiki ai iā lākou ke pohala a hoʻoikaika paha i nā mea ʻokoʻa ma ka ʻaoʻao o ka ʻēheu. ʻO nā membranes kahi pākū manawaleʻa o ka māhina, nā mea momona, a me kahi ʻōnaehana paʻakikī.

ʻO ka membrane ʻaoʻao i ʻekolu ʻāpana. ʻO ka mahele nui chiropathy ("Membrane o ka lima"), i kū ma waena o ka mua a me nā hope. Ua kākoʻo ʻia ʻo Chiropathagy e kahi mea iʻike mua ʻia i ka maka o ka ʻēheu. ʻO nā manamana lima ʻekolu i ʻokoʻa, liʻiliʻi a paʻa me nā ʻōpala. ʻO ka ʻāpana lua o ka ʻuā patatagy ("Front membrane"). ʻO ia ka mua o ka ʻēheu, kahi i kahe mai ka wīwī a ka poʻohiwi, hoʻokumu i kahi "alakaʻi poʻo" i ka wā o ka lele. ʻO kēia, ua hoʻokomo kēia membrane i nā manamana ʻekolu mua o ka lima. O ke kolu o ka pau ka lihookulu ʻia nā pahu ʻili ma waena o nā wāwae o nā pterosaurs. ʻO ka mea kipa, ʻike pinepine ʻia ka croropatagius i nā wāwae a ʻaʻole pili ʻia me ka huelo.

Kūpono i kēia mau holoholona - Piōpikopa - ua pili pū me ka wīwī a kōkua iā ia e mālama i ka membrane mua (propatagy) ma waena o ka pulima a me ka poʻohiwi.

Ma kekahi mau pterosaurs i hala, ua hui pū ʻia kekahi mau thoracic vertebrae i kahi kāmeʻa i kapa ʻia ʻo "notary", nāna i hana e hoʻohui i ka nui o ke kuʻekuʻe i ke kuahiwi a hāʻawi i ke kākoʻo i nā pale poʻohiwi.

Ua loaʻa i nā wāwae pūnaewele Pterosaurs.

ʻO nā mea kanu mua he lōʻihi nā ʻaniani a me nā ʻele lōʻihi, ua hōʻemi loa nā puka i ʻole a me ko lākou pau ʻole, a he nui nā niho ʻole.

ʻO ka hapa nui o nā ʻōpala i loaʻa i nā ʻōpala āpau me kahi piha piha o nā niho ngika lōʻihi. I kekahi manawa, mālama ʻia ke koena o kahi beahi keratin, ʻoiai ma nā ʻano loaʻa nā niho, he liʻiliʻi ka beak, i kaupalena ʻia e nā ʻāpana a nā mea kīpoki a ʻaʻole i komo nā niho. ʻO kekahi mau hiʻohiʻona mākaukau, no ka laʻana, Pteranodontidae a Azhdarchidae, ʻaʻole aʻa ʻole a loaʻa i nā beaks nui aʻe, e like me ka beka o nā manu.

ʻAʻole i like me ka hapanui o nā archosaurs, nā hāmama a me ka preorbital i loko o nā ʻōpala o nā pterodactyloid o nā pterosaurs i hoʻohui ʻia i loko o kahi wehe nui, i kapa ʻia ʻo ka puka naso-preorbital (naso-antorbital fenestra), i maʻalahi e hoʻolāwili ai ka ʻūhā.

Manaʻo ia ʻo ka pterodactyl liʻiliʻi a me nā ramphorinch lōʻihi i pīhoihoi pinepine i ko lākou mau ʻēheu e lele ana, aʻo nā pterosaurs nui i hoʻomakeke i ke kiʻekiʻe kiʻekiʻe, e hoʻohana ana i ke kākoʻo no ka piʻi ʻana o ka wai o ka ea a me ka kōkua i ka mokulele me nā ʻēheu ākea o nā ʻēheu nui.

Ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia kekahi mau pterosaurs e nā pālahalaha paʻakikī, pinepine e pili pū ana i nā keratin a me nā mea hoʻonaninani ʻē aʻe. Malia, ʻo ke kuapo i hoʻohana ʻia e ka pterosaurs ʻaʻole wale nō e hoʻowalewale i ka manaʻo o ke kāne ke kū hoʻokahi (ʻo ka mea hoʻoku kekahi o nā kikoʻī o ka moʻomeheu wahine), akā, ʻo ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka lele no ka thermoregulation.

Aia nā lauoho e like me ka lauoho ma ke poʻo a me ke kino - lāpoʻiona, like like, akā, ʻaʻole homologous i ka lauoho o ka mammals, a like me ka hulu o ka proto-hulu manu o nā dinosaur predatory. Hāpai ka noho ʻana o nā pycnofibres he mau koko koko nā pterosaur, no ka mea he lauoho wela maikaʻi ka make ʻana, a ke ʻōlelo nei kona neʻe ʻana i ka loaʻa ʻana o ka home ponomy e nā pterosaurs - he pānaʻi mau ka luna o ke kino e hoʻoponopono ʻia e nā meakanu physiological. ʻAʻole hana Pycnofibres i kahi hana aerodynamic, akā i puka mai i ke kaʻina o ke akeʻa e hoʻomau i ka thermoregulation.

He mau hulu ʻē paha kekahi o nā ʻano like ʻole.

Hoʻokomo i nā musia mau kaha a hoʻohana i kēia mau ʻuhane e neʻe ai i nā wāwae ʻehā. Ua hoʻohana paha ʻo Pterosaurs i ka lele i hoʻokiʻekiʻe i ko lākou mau kino i ka lewa. ʻO ka ikaika nui o nā mua i hiki iā lākou ke lele. I ka manawa i ka lewa, hiki i nā pterosaurs ke hōʻea i nā wikiwiki a hiki i 120 km / h a lele i nā kaukani mau kilomita.

He ʻōnaehana pēpē ka pterosaurs a me ka mākeke palaka kūpono i hoʻolako ʻia, ka mea nāna i hāʻawi i ka kahe ʻana o ka pūnāwai e like me nā mea i loaʻa i nā manu.

X-ray hoʻokolohua o nā pale o nā lolo o nā pterosaurs Rhamphorhynchus muensteri a Anhanguera santanae ua hōʻike ʻia ka loaʻa ʻana o nā kiʻī nui i loko o lākou, ʻo ia ka wahi o ka cerebellum, kahi e hui pū ai i nā hōʻailona mai nā ʻiliʻili, nā ʻili, ke kino a me nā kino kaulike. Noho kekahi ʻāpana o ka pterosaur i ka 7.5% o ka nui o kā lākou lolo, i ʻoi aku ma mua o nā vertebrate ʻē aʻe. Hoʻouna i ka patch i nā hōʻailona e hoʻoiho i nā neʻe liʻiliʻi o ka mau maka, e hoʻolilo ai i ke kiʻi ma ka retina. Loaʻa paha nā pterosaurs i kahi pua nui loa ma muli o ka nui o ka ʻēheu, ʻo ia ka mea e pono ai lākou e hana i ka nui o ka ʻike sensory. ʻO ka papahī ʻiliʻili liʻiliʻi hoʻi i ka manu ma muli o ka hiki ʻana o ka lolo nui, ʻoiai ʻo ka pterosaurs i manaʻo mua ʻia e noho i kahi ʻoihana i hana maʻalahi ʻia a i ʻole ka hanana pānaʻi ʻole ma mua o nā manu, a me nā noiʻi o nā kīwī a me nā mea ʻē aʻe e hōʻike ana ua hōʻike nā zavropsids i ka paʻakikī mau hiʻohiʻona hoʻohālike me kahi puʻupuʻu liʻiliʻi.

ʻO nā pterosaurs ka mea hoʻohana nui. Nā kuʻuna me nā niho lōʻihi i loaʻa i nā iʻa (a me nā cephalopods). ʻO nā ʻano ʻē aʻe i hopu ʻia ma nā reptile, ʻo nā dinosaurs, nā mammals a me nā invertebrates (nā pepeke nui, nā mollusks a me nā mea kanu). ʻAʻole hoowahawaha kekahi mau ʻano. Nā lālā o ka ʻohana Tapejaridae akaka ka ai i nā hua o nā mea kanu. ʻO kekahi pterodactyls (Belonochasma, Ctenochasma) i loko o nā ʻōpala i kanu nui ʻia, a hiki i 1000, ʻokiʻoki loa a me nā niho pulupaa ʻūhā, a hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia e like me ke kānana i ka wā e ʻai ana ma ka plankton. Ua ʻalo paha kekahi mau ʻano holoholona i loko o ko lākou mau lāʻau no ka ʻimi ʻana i nā holoholona liʻiliʻi.

I ka huli ʻana, ua mālama ʻia nā mōlia dinosaur a me nā crocodiles, ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs a me nā hiu e hopu ai i nā pterosaurs.Eia nō kekahi, ua loaʻa nā pterosaurs i nā ʻano like ʻole. Hiki iā ia ke ʻimi nā manu a me nā pterosaurs i kēlā me kēia, a me nā pterosaurs lākou iho i hopu i nā pterosaurs liʻiliʻi.

Hiki iā ia ke ʻauʻau ke hiki i kekahi mau pterosaur, e like me ka wai wai. No laila e ʻO Jolopterus, e like me ka wai wai manu hou, aia nā membrane ma waena o nā manamana wāwae o nā wāwae hind. ʻO ka pterosaurs kaʻai iʻa iʻa e noho ma luna o ka wai a ʻauʻau i loko, e kahe ana o ko lākou mau wāwae hind, e like me nā ducks. Ma keʻano kūikawā, loaʻa i nā ʻāpana i waiho ʻia e nā pterosaurs i ka wai pāpio.

ʻO keʻano kūikawā, nā pterosaur Tapapejara wellnhoferi ua loaʻa he ʻano kikoʻī (kahi kino i like me ke ʻano o nā ʻūpā, kahi puʻupuʻu nui awkward i luna o ke poʻo) i kōkua iā ia e ʻauʻau ma ka wai. ʻO kahi hoʻopaʻa noi ʻana i nā aero- a me ka hydrodynamics o nā ʻēheu i hōʻike i kēlā T. wellnhoferi, e like me ka mea hoʻololi, hana hou i kona kino (ʻoiai, e like me kēia leʻe lele lele) e kahe i luna o ka ʻili o ka wai, me he mea lā ma lalo o ka holo ʻana. No laila, ʻimi ʻo ia paha ʻo ia i mea ʻai nona iho. Ma ka hihia o ka mea i lalo o ka wai T. wellnhoferi hiki koke ke wehe aku a peʻe. A pau T. wellnhoferi kāpīpī i ka ʻala i ka wai, hana i ka mea hoʻohālike o ka puʻu o ka moku, ʻūhā i nā wāwae ma nā ʻaoʻao e like me nā puʻupuʻu hou. ʻO ka hopena he trimaran, a hiki i ka hoʻopili iki me ka wai i hiki ke lele nani ma ka ʻaoʻao o ka wai a loaʻa i ka wikiwiki maikaʻi. ʻO ka mua o ka pterosaur i lawe ʻia ma muli o nā ʻēheu lōʻihi a me ka nāwī, e pāʻani nei i nā kuleana he ʻelua mau pelu me nā kuila, a ʻo ka mea nui kaulana i puka ai kahi jib, kahi e ʻae ai ʻoe e hoʻololi i ke alakaʻi o ka neʻe. Lilo ka lūlū i ka lawaiʻa, ʻoiai i ka manawa like hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia no ka huki ʻana i ka wahine like.

Ua waiho ʻo Pterosaurs i kā lākou hua. Noho kekahi mau mea i nā kolala nui, i like me nā "manu mākeke" o nā gannets a me nā kolone o nā lau moana. Ua ʻike nā ʻepekema ʻepekema i hiki i nā pterosaurs ke hōʻuluʻulu i nā moa. Ke hōʻike nei ke ʻano o nā koena o nā embryos i nā keiki ʻole o nā pterosaurs i ʻole o ka maikaʻi ʻole a hiki ʻole ke hānai iā lākou iho a mālama pono iā lākou iho, no laila, i ka wā i ulu ai lākou, pono nā mākua e mālama pono iā lākou. Ke hoʻohana nei i ka tomography compted, ʻike ʻia e nā kānakaʻepekema ʻo ka ʻoihana nui loa i hoʻomohala ʻia ma kahi o 2 mau makahiki paha, akā ke hoʻomau nei ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka hua i ka manawa e make ai. ʻO ke ʻano kēia, ua lōʻihi loa ka pāpale pterosaurs i nā hua.

Ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia ʻo Pterosaurs i ʻelua mau ʻāpana (ʻoi aku ma mua o 200 mau mea e hōʻike ʻia ai):

Pau ka hala ma ka hope o ka Cretaceous ma muli o ka hāʻule o ka Honua i kahi asteroid / asteroids (nā pahu pīhoihoi Chiksulub a me Shiva) i ka nui

10 km (a i ʻole) e pili ana he 65 miliona mau makahiki i hala, a me ka hoʻokūkū mai nā manu a, inā paha, nā mea kino ʻē aʻe (e hana ana i ka lua pele / Deccan traps /, a hoʻonāukiuki ʻia e ka hopena o kahi asteroid / asteroids).

Kauoha i nā Lizards Winged a Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

"Nā wēlau hoʻomau." ʻO kēia ka poʻe o ka vertebrates mua a me nā reptile wale nō i kāhea i ka lewa. He mau manu lele lākou i hiki ai i ka lele ikaika.

He pilina pili like kēia ʻohana me nā dinosaurs a me ko lākou mau kūpuna. ʻAʻole maopopo, kumu maoli nō ia mai loko mai o nā mea liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi e like me nā māla lau e noho ana ma nā lāʻau a ma nā pali pili paha. Lagosuchus a Scleromochlus. ^ E Ha yM. Ua hū koke lāua i ka hopena o ka Triassic, ma kahi o 225-230 miliona mau makahiki i hala. Loaʻa ka ʻike mua loa mai Late Triassic o Northern Italy, Kelemānia a me Greenland. ʻO kēia ua kūkulu pono ʻia nā rumphorinhoids me kahi huila i hoʻololi ʻia no ka holo. ʻO kēia ka makahiki like me ka dinosaurs kahiko loa ʻike a me nā mammals maoli. Aia i loko o ka Jurassic laha ma ka honua holoʻokoʻa. Pane i ka hope o ka Cretaceous. ʻO lākou paha ka hui a nā kaikuahine iā Dinosauriformes i loko o Ornithodira, akā, ʻoi aku ka nui o nā archosaurifances mua.

ʻOiai ua paʻa nā pterosaurs i ka hapa nui o nā hiʻohiʻona o ko lākou mau kūpuna pro-cerciform, ua loli maoli ko lākou mau kino no ka piʻi ʻana i nā lāʻau a no ka lele. Ma hope mai, ua hana kekahi mau hoʻololi i nā ʻano ʻokoʻa. ʻO Pterosaurs i hoʻonani i ka lewa no ka hapa nui o ka Mesozoic, akā ʻaʻole i noho i ka Late Cretaceous extinction.

ʻO ka maʻa mau ka lōʻihi lākou me nā niho koʻikoʻi, kahi ʻāʻī lōʻihi, ke kino pōkole, lōʻihi nā wāwae a me nā ʻēheu membrane. Ua hoʻolalelale nā ​​manu, ʻo kekahi (Jurassic) loaʻa nā niho, ʻo kekahi (Late Cretaceous) he kui āʻe. ʻO ka liʻiliʻi loa ka nui o kahi manuahi, a ʻo ka mea nui ka nui o kahi lele. Hoʻopili ʻia kekahi me nā fib-like fib.

ʻOi aku ka nui o nā ʻano he 130 i wehewehe ʻia, akā aia wale nō no 30 mau mea i ʻike ʻia no ke koena e pau loa. ʻO ka hapa nui o nā ʻano ʻēheu he hapa ia ma mua o hoʻokahi mika a ʻo ka nui o ka manu nunu a he ʻōlō paha. Ua puka mai nā puka nui ma loko o ka Cretaceous, 3-4 m i nā ʻēheu, a ua hiki nā Late Cretaceous mau kia ma kahi o 10 m.

ʻO ka Triassic pterosaurs ka mea mua a me ka mea mua i nā ʻano mua. Hiki ke ʻike pinepine ʻia e ko lākou niho. Ma hope, he mau niho lōʻihi ka lōʻihi o ka pterosaurs. ʻO ka hapa nui o nā niho o ka pterosaurs he lahilahi, ʻoval i loko o ka ʻāpana ʻāpana, nā ʻūlū he hala. Hoʻopili pinepine lākou i nā ʻili a hiki ke pololei a ʻōmaʻomaʻo paha. ʻO kekahi mau ʻano fossil ʻē aʻe e hōʻike like ana i nā niho o ka pterosaur, inā no kekahi mau'ōpio ʻōpio. ʻOi aku ka nui o nā iwi o ka Triassic pterosaurs ma mua o nā ʻano ma hope; ke hōʻike nei lākou i nā paia nā mākaʻi a me nā puka pneumatic liʻiliʻi.

ʻO ka manawa ʻo Jurassic he manawa ia e lele ai nā lizards i nā mea hoʻomohala koʻikoʻi. Ua noho lākou i loko o nā niches a me nā wahi e noho ana a puni ka honua. ʻO nā pterosaurs Jurassic (rhamphorhinhoids) pili i nā niho lōʻihi loa me kahi oval oval a me kahi pāpale enamel kūikawā ma ke kihi o ka niho. Hōʻike kekahi mau ʻano holoholona i nā leʻaleʻa liʻiliʻi a me ka liʻiliʻi o ka niho, akā ʻo ka nui o nā niho palupalu. ʻO kekahi mau hope ma ka pterosaurs Jurassic (pterodactyloids) e hoʻomaka e hōʻike i ka hoʻopili ʻana i ka niho a me ka hoʻonui i ka lōʻihi o nā iwi o ka lehelehe manu.

I loko o ka pale, ua nui nā mea hana i nā nui nui, paha ma muli o ke kaila o ka oxygen kiʻekiʻe i loko o ka lewa i laila. ʻAʻohe o Pterosaurs a ua ʻike ʻia ka nui o nā ʻano nui i kēia manawa. Nui nā ʻano o nā ʻano hope ma hope o ka honua a ua laulā nui loa. Nui kekahi mau mea liʻiliʻi ʻē aʻe, akā ʻoi aku ka liʻiliʻi ma mua o ka Jurassic. Loaʻa paha kēia ma muli o ka hoʻokūkū o nā pterosaurs liʻiliʻi me nā manu, nā mea i nui a keu me ka pōpoki.

ʻO Pterosaurs nā pailani maoli, me nā ʻēheu hiki ke hoʻokumu i ka traction a hoʻokiʻekiʻe. He nui a lākou nā eli manu - nā membrane lele. ʻO ke kākoʻo nui no ka lele e lele ana i ka pelekane, he mau forelimbs elongated loa. I nā manamana lima ʻekolu i loaʻa ke ʻano maʻamau a me nā ʻalihi, ua hala ka lima, a ua hā ka ʻehā i ka lōʻihi ʻē aʻe a ua kuʻi ʻia kahi membi ma waena o ia a me nā ʻaoʻao o ke kino. ʻO ka ʻaoʻao o loko o ka membrane ua hoʻopili pololei ʻia i ke kino. Ke ulu nui ʻana, ua helu ʻo ka manamana ʻehā i ʻoi aku ma mua o 60% o ka lōʻihi o ke kuʻuna holoʻokoʻa. Ua hōʻoki ʻia nā manamana lima a hoʻohana ʻia paha e hoʻopaʻa i ka holoholona ma nā lālā lāʻau a ma luna o ka pā pōhaku.

ʻO ka membrane ʻoi aku ka hoʻoikaika ʻia e kahi papana o nā ʻōpala lahilahi, kokoke i ka 100 mau pakanani pālua, ma lalo o ka 0.1 mm ka anawaena, akā a hiki i 100 mm ka lōʻihi, i kapa ʻia ʻo actinofibrils. Hāʻawi kēia mau serat i ka ʻāʻī ʻana o ka ʻēheu a mālama i kona ʻano, e hoʻemi ana i ka nui o ka luhi e pono ai nā limu i nā membranes e hoʻopaʻa pono ai. Ua hoʻoikaika kēia i ka ʻēhe a pale iā ia mai ka wāwahi ʻana, e hoʻopihapiha ai i ka hōʻino. Hoʻokumu ʻia nā Actinofibrils mai nā pae ʻāpana.

Kahi ʻia ka propatagium i mua o ka mua a hiki ke hāpai ʻia a hoʻoheheʻe ʻia paha e ka pteroid, ka mea ʻokoʻa i ka iwi i ka iwi. Ua kuhikuhi ʻia mai ka welele o ka pterosaur i kona poʻohiwi, e kākoʻo ana i ka ʻāpana o ka membrane wing. Loko loa ia ka puka ʻana o kahi ʻano hou ma waena o nā vertebrates, ʻoi aku ka maʻamau o ka ʻōiwi i nā hana kahiko, hana ʻia iā lākou no nā hana hou.

ʻO ka membrane kahe nui (cheiropatagium) i hoʻopili ʻia ma ka ʻaoʻao o ka mua i mua o ka forelimb, ʻaoʻao o ke kino, a me ka ʻaoʻao o ka waho o ka wāwae hind i ka ʻāʻī. I ka pterosaurs he mau membrane hou (cruropatagium a i ʻole uropatagium) e hoʻolalelale ana ma waena o nā wāwae hind a kākoʻo pū ʻia i ka lima ʻākau.

Hāʻawi ka cheyropathagium i ka hapanui o ka hāpai a me ka traction i ka wā o ka lele. Hoʻohana ʻia ka propatagium a me ka cruropatagium ma mua o ka nalo o ka papa no ka mālama ʻana i ka wā holo, e mālama i ka wikiwiki, a i ʻole e ʻae i kahi holo lohi i ka wā o ka lawe a i ʻole kahi pae ʻāina. ʻO nā hana ʻē aʻe, e like me nā manamana lima liʻiliʻi e paʻa i ka lima, nā ʻūhā ma luna o ka ʻūhā, a me nā wāwae, hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia e like me nā papa hana. Loaʻa iā Ramforinchoid a me kekahi poʻe ʻē aku i ka puʻe caudal.

ʻAʻole ʻike ʻia inā pili ʻia ka membrane manu i ka ʻūhā a i ʻole nā ​​wāwae, e waiho pū ana i nā wāwae a hiki ke neʻe hou i ka lepo. Inā pili ʻole ka membrane i nā wāwae, a laila hoʻomaka ke hoʻomaka ʻana o ka lele o nā pterosaurs mai ka lele ʻana i ka lewa. Ua hoʻoikaika ʻia nā ʻēheu e nā ʻāpana nui i hele mai ka sternum a pili i nā puka ākea nui ma ka iwi lima o luna. ʻO ka hoʻolālā ʻana i ke kuʻekuʻe poʻohiwi hoʻihoʻi i ka ʻēheu e piʻi a luna i lalo, huli, a holo pū a lele i waho. ʻO Pterosaurs mau liʻiliʻi i like me ka manu i ka lele ma mua o nā manu.

ʻO nā pterosaur liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi a me ka nui o ka wā e hoʻohana ai i ka lele, i kekahi manawa e hele ai i ka lele, nā ʻano nunui i hoʻopiha ʻia i ka mokulele i ka wā o ka lawe ʻana a ka ʻāina, akā ua hoʻomehana i ka wela a me ka piʻi ʻana o nā ʻōpū o ka ea i ka manawa he nui e mālama ai i ka ikehu. He mau ʻēheu nui ʻo Pterosaurs i hoʻohālikelike ʻia i ko lākou kino kino a no laila ua hiki ke lele mālie. Eia kekahi, ʻo ka hoʻolālā paʻakikī o ka hāmeʻa o ka mokulele e pili ana i ka mua a me nā pale o ka wāwae, me nā ʻano o nā kaohi o ka mana, hōʻike ʻia lākou he manu ākea loa.

Hoʻohui hou me nā ʻēheu, hōʻike pū kekahi nā pterosaur i nā hoʻololi ʻē aʻe i kahi kapa lele. ʻO ko lākou mau kaila ka nui a me ka manu-e like me ka lele - makemake i nā ʻōnaehana hoʻoponopono. Akā, ʻoiai ka like o ka hui neural laulima ma kahi manu, nā pterosaurs i emi iho i ka noʻonoʻo noʻonoʻo pono e pili i ke kaumaha o ke kino ma mua o nā manu. He mau lolo nui ʻo Pterosaurs me nā holomua ʻike i ulu ʻia, akā naʻe i ka olfactory i lalo.

ʻO nā hoʻololi ʻē aʻe e kuhikuhi ana i ka hoʻemi ʻana i ke kaupaona ʻana o ke kino i loaʻa ka hōʻemi nui ʻana i ka mānoanoa o ka pā o ka iwi a me ka pneumatization o nā iwi nui a me ka vertebrae. ʻO nā iwi o nā ʻēheu o ka pterosaurs ka hakahaka nui, e like me nā manu, a ʻoi aku ka ʻoi ka mea i nāʻuʻuku ʻia. I ka wā e ola ana, ua paʻa paʻa nā iwi a me nā ʻenekene o ka ea e hoʻomaʻamaʻa ai i ke ʻano. ʻO lākou nā umeke hollow me ke aniani ʻōwili pālua me ka ʻaoʻao o ka ʻā. ʻAʻohe mea ʻike pololei o ka ʻona ea, akā ke ʻano o ka maʻi pneumatic o nā iwi i ka nui o ia mau mea. Kani pinepine nā iwi o ka lehelehe i nā kaila helehelena hakakā, ʻoi loa ia i nā kihi o nā iwi.

He kino puʻupuʻu ko lākou, hoʻemi ʻia a hoʻopuʻi ʻia i nā femurs, e like me ke kuihi nui (a 50% o ke ana o ke kino), kahi palahalaha ākea i hoʻopili ʻia mai nā clavicles i pili ʻia. Ke hana nei nā kūmua i waho ma ka sternum (cristospine) i hana i ka ʻano kūmole o nā manu. Loaʻa ka loaʻa ʻana o ka sternum i kahi pākuʻi me nā ʻili o kahi hoʻopili o nā ʻiʻo ikaika.

ʻO ka pou vertebral o pterosaurs kahiʻokoʻaʻokoʻa. I nā ala he nui, ua like ia me nā manu me ke kāʻei ʻo ka poʻohiwi loa a me nā pā pelvic. Heʻuʻuku kekahi spinal vertebrae me ka hoʻoneʻe ʻokoʻa.

ʻO ka hapa nui o nā fossils he cervical vertebrae. ʻOi aku lākou i hoʻohālikelike ʻia i nā vertebrae ʻē aʻe. ʻO ka atlas a me nā toki e kuʻi i ka iwi hoʻokahi, a helu ana i ka atlas a me nā toki no ʻelua, aia ka 8 mau vertebrae cervical i ka pterosaurs mua, e emi ana i 6 ma hope aʻe a nui nā pterosaurs. He kiko palupalu o ka iwi paʻakikī a me kahi ʻāpana waena o ka iwi spongy a me nā pou pneumatic (mau ʻōpū ea). ʻAʻohe ʻōpio āpau ʻole. ʻO ka nui o kēia mau vertebrae ma ka ʻano like.

ʻO nā pterosaurs liʻiliʻi. ʻO ka vertebrae cervical o nā pterosaurs liʻiliʻi, e like me ka ramforinha a me ka pterodactyl, ka mea maʻamau o nā ʻano he nui. Me kāna ʻōpala ahi, pono i ka ramforinch i nā vertebrae neʻe ikaika. ʻOi aku ka lōʻihi o ka'āpana Pterodactyl vertebrae.

ʻO nā pterosaurs nui. ʻO Pteranodon kahi pterosaur nui me ka vertebrae i hoʻopili maoli ʻia o ka Atlanta-axis pili i kahi ʻōpala. Hoʻokomo ʻia ka vertebrae cervical ma kēia ʻano me ka periosteum palupalu (he kīwaha paʻakikī o ka iwi) a me kahi papa o ka iwi cancellous. Aia nā ʻōpū o ka lewa ma ka iwi a me kahi lua o ka pneumatic e ʻike ʻia ana i ka waenakonu o ka pihi o ke poʻi o ka piko. Ua aneane loa nā iwi a pau o ka spine o ka pteranodon i piha i ka ea.

ʻO Ornithosaurs kahi pūʻulu ākea ākea a me kā lākou cervical vertebrae ʻokoʻa i nā ʻano ʻokoʻa like ʻole. Ma ka laulā, ua pālahalaha loa a ākea lākou a loaʻa nā puka pneumatic nui. Nui nō hoʻi nā pterosaurs me ka vertebrae cervical lōʻihi loa. ʻO nā hiʻohiʻona maʻamau he azdarkides ʻAzhdarcho, Quetzalcoatlus a Arambourginiana. ^ E Ha yM. Loaʻa nā ʻōmaʻomaʻo maʻamau.

Laki pūpū kani. He ʻumikumamālua paha ma kekahi mau ʻano, akā ʻokoʻa ka liʻiliʻi. Kahi pinepine nā trunk vertebrae mua e hoʻopili pū i kahi hanana wahi ʻole no ka articulation me ka scapula. I kekahi mau ʻōiwi, hana lākou i ka notarian, he iwi iwi e kahe ana i nā hana 6 a 8 paha. Ma nā pterosaurs nui, hoʻopili pū ka līlani thoracic, hana i kahi ʻano i kapa ʻia ʻo notarium.

Eiwi iwi. ʻO ka liʻiliʻi, kahi 6, he pōkole akā paʻa. ʻO kēia mau vertebrae kekahi mau maʻi ma ka maʻamau a hōʻike pinepine i nā puka pneumatic nui (no ka hele ʻana o ka ea i loko o ka iwi) ma kēlā ʻaoʻao. I ka hapanui o nā ʻano, hiki i ka dorsal vertebrae ke hoʻopili i nā iwi pōkole.

Sacral vertebrae. Hoʻopili pinepine ʻia i nā iwi ʻōiwi paʻa a paʻa i nā iwi o nā pelvis. No ka rhamphorinchoid, ke wehe pololei nei kēia ʻano, akā ma ka ʻano o hope i mea he ʻano pani. ʻO ka maʻamau mai ka 6 a me ka 8 vertebrae i ka sacrum. Hoʻokomo ʻia ka pelvic vertebrae me nā iwi pelvic, hana i kahi kaila o ka hoʻoulu ʻana (synsacrum), pono i ka holoholona e pae.

Caudal vertebrae. Loaʻa nā pterosaurs a pau, akā he mea liʻiliʻi loa ka pterodactyloids. Hiki i ka caudal vertebrae ʻo ramforinha ke komo ma mua o 35 mau vertebrae a ua pākahi kēlā me kēia ʻelua i nā iwi iwi e holo ana.

Kūmaka kekahi poʻe noiʻi e hele lākou ma ka ʻāina ma nā wāwae ʻelua, akā ʻo ka hapanui e hōʻike ana i kahi ala o ka neʻe ka wāwae (like me nā gorillas). I nā pterosaurs, nā "tarsus" waho "- ka tarsus waena a me 4 a me ke kolu o waho a me ka tarsus i waho - he hana koʻikoʻi. ʻO nā ʻeleʻele o nā wāwae he wahi liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi e pale ana i ke kumu o nā wāwae.

He mau ʻeke pōkole nā ​​puka mua, kahi e koi ai i nā lele mau no ka mokulele, hoʻomohala nā puka i hope nā ʻēheu lōʻihi e hoʻōla i ka lewa me ka liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi. Ua lele nā ​​ʻēheu i ko lākou hoʻopili ʻana i kahi lāʻau. Pono ke kū pololei ʻo Pterosaurs i ko lākou hohola ʻana i ko lākou mau ʻēheu e hemo mai ka honua aku. I ka hala o nā pterodactyls, ua lilo ka ʻalima kuʻekuʻe a lilo i ke koena.

Loaʻa ka hapa nui ʻo nā fossil i ka moʻo moana a me ka loko o ke kai. ʻO ka hapa nui o ka pterosaurs he mau mea kai ʻai iʻa, kekahi ʻo ia nā pepeke manuahi.ʻAʻohe mea iʻike he oviparous nā pterosaurs, no ka mea, ʻaʻole maopopo ka ʻike pono ʻana o nā hua a i ʻole holo o ka pterosaurs. (Wahi a kekahi mau hōʻike, ʻo ka hua mua i ʻike ʻia ma ka anurognathid, ʻo ka lua o ka hua manu Kina no ka ornithocheid nui, ke paʻa nei kekahi mau hiʻohiʻona o ka cycloramphid). Ma kahi o 160 miliona mau makahiki - mai ka hopena o ka Triassic a hiki i ka hopena hope loa o ka Cretaceous, ua loaʻa i ka pōmaikaʻi i ka hope Jurassic. Loaʻa ma nā konika āpau, ʻo ia hoʻi ʻo Antarctica.

Hoʻokaumaha, nā pterosaurs i ka uropathagiata me nā hiʻohiʻona i kūkulu ʻia:

• • ʻōpala nui ka hiʻona nui
• • ka hulahula o premaxillary-palatal, ka mea e kāpae i ka mākaha o luna mai ka palena o ka wehe o ka ihu oloko
• • ka hū o ka dorsal o ka iwi maxillary elongated i hoʻopili me nā iwi mua
• • kahi pākuʻi preorbital i hoʻonui nui ʻia
• • nā niho ma ka iwi maxillary a he ʻelua ma waena o ka iwi kiʻekiʻe e hoʻonui ai
• • nā iwi palatine i hoʻokumu i ka ʻaoʻao mua o ka wehe o ka ihu o loko
• • aia ka wehe ma waena o nā pterygoids a me ka basephenoid (interterigoid void)
• • aneane like ka humerus me ka lōʻihi ma ka ʻūhā
• • ʻO nā wīwī ʻelua e pili kokoke ana i ka pūnaewele hoʻopili e hoʻopili ʻia ma nā pākeke e hoʻopili i ka syncarpal.
• • ʻEkolu mau kihi ʻehā kūoili i waho i nā pākeke, e hana ana i kahi syncarpal o waho.
• • phalanx penultimate o nā manamana I - III i hoʻonui
• • ʻO ka manamana ʻehā he 4 lōʻihi a lōʻihi hoʻi nā phalanges, me ka ʻole o kahi claw phalanx. Hoʻopili i nā hui interphalangeal i kahi neʻe liʻiliʻi.

Laopteryx priscum. ^ E Ha yM. Laopteryx. "E lei ʻokiʻoki i ka wā kahiko." Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian - Tithonian), USA (Wyoming). ʻOi aku ka nui ma mua o kahi heron uliuli. ʻO ka mahele ʻāpana kahi kūloko i ke ʻano he manu. Loaa ka hope o ke ʻūlū a loaʻa i ka niho wale nō i ʻike ʻia, aia paha i kekahi holoholona. Ua haki loa nā koena no ka wehewehe ʻana i ka ʻohana.

ʻ historylelo aʻo

Pterodactylus (Collini, 1784)

Ua hoʻomaka ka noiʻi ʻepekema o pterosaurs i ka makahiki 1784, i ka wā i paʻi ʻia ai ka mea kūlohelohe ʻo Cosimo Alessandro Collini i ka wehewehe ʻana i ke kāʻei o kahi holoholona ʻokoʻa me nā kuʻuna lōʻihi, ʻo kēlā me kēia mea i loaʻa ka manamana lima, i loaʻa i nā waihona shale o Solnhofen, Kelemānia. Ua hōʻole ʻo ia e hiki i kēia manamana lima lōʻihi ke kākoʻo i kahi membrane e like me ka ʻēheu o ka peʻahi, akā no ka mea i ʻike ʻia kekahi mea ʻike ʻole ma ka ʻaʻa moana, ua manaʻo ʻo ia ua hoʻohana ʻia kēia mau lima ʻē e like me nā flippers. I ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā kenekulia 19, ua aʻo ʻia kēia mea e ke kanaka anatomist Farani Georges Cuvier, nāna i hoʻokumu he fossile kēia fossil, a ʻo kāna "mau ʻāpana" he mau ʻēheu. I ka makahiki 1809 ua kapa ʻia ia i ka mea ola Ptero-dactyle ("ʻAnahu-wulu"). Mai kēia manawa, ua kapa ʻia nā koena o nā pterosaurs i ʻike ʻia he pterodactyls, a i ka makahiki 1834 wale nō ka poʻe Kelemania ʻo Johann Jacob Kaup i hāʻawi i ka inoa i kahi papa hou o nā reptile e lele ana - "Pterosauria"(Pterosaurs).

Ma Great Britain ma ka hopena o ka makahiki 18, i loko o nā waihona Jurassic o Stonefield (Oxfordshire), ua loaʻa kekahi mau iwi o nā pterosaurs, akā ua ʻike ʻia he mau manu manu a ua ʻike nui ʻia. Ua ʻike ʻia nā koena o nā iwi hou e ko Mīliona Mantel i ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ke kenekulia 19, akā ua noʻonoʻo pū ka mea kūlohelohe iā Cuvier iā lākou ka iwi o nā manu. ʻO kēia ʻano o ka nānā ʻana i nā paleontologists o nā kenekulia 19, me William Bikane a me Gideon Mantell, i alakaʻi ʻia i nā koena o nā pterosaurs no nā makahiki he mau makahiki i ʻike ʻole ʻole ʻia i nā papa Pelekane Pelekane a me Cretaceous.

Hoʻonohonoho hou o Dimorphodon, 1864

Ua lohi kēia i ka ʻike ʻana i nā pterosaurs a hiki i ka hopena o nā makahiki 1820, i ka wā i wehewehe ai ʻo William Bikane i nā ʻano "Pterodactylus macronyx"(Dimorphodon). ʻOiai ma hope o kēia lā, nui nā iwi i hōʻoki ʻia a nui naʻe nā iwi pterosaurs i hōʻike hewa ʻia e ka ʻUria, ʻoiai naʻe i ka manaʻo ʻole o ke koi ʻana i ka wā e ʻike ai ʻo nā manu Mesozoic a hiki i ka loaʻa ʻana o ka Archeopteryx i ka makahiki 1860. ʻO nā koena o nā pterosaurs nui i ʻike mua ʻia ma UK 20 mau makahiki ma mua o ka wehewehe ʻana o ka pteranodon kaulana (Pteranodon), mai nā pahu Cretaceous o Kansas. Akā, ʻōʻuwili ʻia ka lau o Pelekane (ornithoheir) i hele a ʻike ʻole ʻia a maʻalahi ʻia ke ʻano e ka mahalo,

Hoʻonui hou iā Ramphorhynchus (Marsh, 1882)

nā kihi ʻeke piha o nā pteranodon i loaʻa e Otniel Marsh i ka makahiki 1870. I ka makahiki 1882, ua wehewehe ʻo Charles Marsh i ka ʻāpana pterosaur mua me kahi membrane lei lei maoli, i kapa ʻia "ʻO Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus"(ramforinh). Ma ka ʻike i loaʻa mai i ka limu lithographic Zolnhofen i mālama mau ʻia i nā keka o nā manu, me ka pena ʻana o ka mānoʻokiʻoni hoʻi i ka hope o ka huelo. A manaʻo ʻo Marsh e paʻa ana kēia" fin "me ke kuʻikuʻu no ka mea he haʻahaʻa o ka asymmetric a ua hoʻohana ʻia no ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana hoʻokō pono i ka lele.

ʻO nā pterosaurs Giant

ʻO ka hana hou ʻana o ka pteranodon (Marsh, 1884)

A hiki i ka makahiki 1870, ua ʻike ʻia ka pterosaur ka nui loa no nā pōpoki mai ka hale kūʻai Cretaceous ma ke kūkulu hema o ʻEnelani a loaʻa iā lākou nā ʻēheu he 3 mau mika, hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ka nui o nā manu nui hou loa, e like me ka albatross a me ka ʻōpio. ʻO ka mōʻī 140 makahiki makahiki o ka pterosaurs nunui, ʻike ʻia mai ka ʻike ʻana i ka mea i ʻike mua ʻia i nā pterosaurs kaulana loa - Pteranodon (Pteranodon): ka mea mua, ua hoʻolaha ʻo Charles Marsh i ka loaʻa ʻana o kekahi holoholona me nā ʻēheu he 6,6 mau mika, a ua ʻike hope ʻia ka loaʻa ʻana o nā mea mai kahi kikoʻī i helu ʻia ma ka 7,6 mika. ʻO Pteranodon kekahi o nā mea aloha e like me ka mea kaulana a Mesozoic ma hope o Tyrannosaurus rex, e noho ana i kahi kūlana paʻa ma ka maka o ka lehulehu i kahi pterodactyl archetypal. ʻO ka loaʻa ʻana o ka pteranodon i hoʻomāi ʻia e ka ʻike mua ʻana o nā pterosaurs mai ka English English Cretaceous, ʻo ia nō ke poʻo o nā pterosaurs kanaka nunui i ʻike nui ʻia e ka ʻepekema e nā ʻano he nui, ʻaʻole ia mai nā ʻāpana liʻiliʻi, a lilo ka mea moʻomeheu ma ke ʻano he nui o ka "prehistoric reptile" i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni "The Lost World" e Arthur ʻO Conan Doyle (1922) a me ka Jurassic Park e Michael Crichton - Cearadactylus i ka moʻolelo a me Pteranodon kiʻiʻoniʻoni.

I nā makahiki mua o ka kenekulia 20, ʻaʻohe o nā pterosaurs e ʻoi aku ka nui ma mua o ka pteranodon. Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka palapala hōʻike ma ka Pterosaur ʻAmelika, ka holoholona lele nui e ʻike ʻia ana ma mua o 80 mau makahiki, a ua hō ʻia ʻia e ka iwi i ʻike ʻia e C.A. Arambourg i ka makahiki 1954. ʻO kēia iwi hapalua (500 mm), mai ka Campania waiho mai o ka Cretaceous manawa ʻo Ioredane, ua unuhi ʻia he iwi ʻehā me nā ʻēheu o 7 mika, kahi e like me nā ʻēheu o kahi pteranodon. Elima mau makahiki ma hope mai, loaʻa kēia ʻatikala i ka inoa ʻepekema. Titanopteryx philidelphiae (Arambourg 1959) - "ʻānu titanic."

I nā makahiki 1970, ua loaʻa nā hapa hou o ka pterosaur buta, i hāʻawi i nā manaʻo hou e pili ana i ka nui o ka pterosaur buta. ʻO ka humerus he 544 mm lōʻihi a me nā mea ʻē aʻe o ka ʻēheu Texas nui i hōʻike ʻia e Douglas Lawson i 1972, e hōʻike ana i ke ʻano o nā pterosaurs me kahi ʻēheu e ʻoi aku ma mua o 7 mika. I ka makahiki 1975, ua kapa ʻia ʻo ke kanaka hou ʻo Quetzalcoatl (Quetzalcoatlus), ʻo ka humerus o kēia kaukani he ʻelua iʻoi aku ka nui o ka pethanodon ka nui loa, e hōʻike ana he mau nika nei o kēia pterosaur a he 15 mau mika. Ma ka makahiki hoʻokahi, ʻo Douglas A. Lawson, e noiʻi ana i nā koena o ka quetzalcoatl, i hele mai ai ka hopena, ʻaʻole ʻo ka iwi kuʻina o Aramburg he iwi ʻēheu, akā he mau lula. ʻO ka ʻāʻī lōʻihi o Quetzalcoatl e hūnā i ka makemake nui, aneane like me kona nui nui. ʻO kekahi elongated sub-cylindrical vertebrae, ʻo ka lōʻihi loa he 8 ia i kona laula, ua ʻike ʻia ʻo ka vertebrae cervical, i hāʻawi ʻia i kahi hiʻohiʻona kūpono no ka hoʻolaha pono ʻana o Quetzalcoatl. ʻO ka helu kuhi helu quetzalcoatl i loiloi ʻia e Van Langston i ka makahiki 1981. Ua ʻike ʻia kēia loiloi he ʻeha ka umauma o ka pterosaur i ʻumikūmālima mau mika i ka nui o ka hoʻouka ʻana ma ka holo. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Robert Bakker (1986), he mea liʻiliʻi ka ʻike e pili ana i nā ʻōpū o quetzalcoatl no ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana i nā wingpan; ua hōʻike ʻo Becker e ʻike ʻia kahi kuʻikuʻu o nā parirau o 15 mau mita a hiki i ʻike ʻia nā hōʻike i ke kue. Eia nō naʻe, ua ʻike ka hope ma hope o nā ʻuhane mai nā mea liʻiliʻi, akā pili pili pono, e like me Zhejiangopterus (Cai & Wei 1994) kuhikuhi i ka manaʻo o nā eheu o Quetzalcoatl ma kahi o 11 mau mika. Kuhi ʻia kēia mau hoʻohālike aia i ka ʻēhe quetzalcoatl ma kahi o 40% nui aʻe ma mua o ka pteranodon a kūpono i kekahi o nā holoholona lele kaulana.

I nā makahiki 1980, kapa hou ʻo ka paleontologist Lūkini ʻo Lev Nesov Titanopteryx i loko o kahi puaʻa Aramburgiana hou (Arambourgiania), ka hanohano o K. Aramburg, ka mea mua i ke noi i kēia ʻike i heʻeuʻe. I ka makahiki 1998, David M. Martill a me kahi hui o nā mea noiʻi i hana i kahi noi hou o ka holotype mai Ioredane. Ke hoʻohālikelike nei i ka hoʻopiha piha ʻana iā Aramburgian vertebra me Quetzalcoatl, ua hele lākou i ka hopena i hiki i kēia holoholona i nā ʻēheu he 11-13 mau mita: no laila, ʻo kēia hoʻohālike, i loaʻa i ka makahiki 1940, ua lilo ia i ka pterosaur ʻano mua loa i loaʻa ka nui ma pteranodon, ʻoiai aneane 60 makahiki paha e hoʻomaopopo ai i kēia. Hoʻomaka hou nā hana ʻimi e hāʻawi i nā ʻike hou i ka pterosaurs nui ʻEulopa. I ka makahiki 1996, kākau ʻo Martill e pili ana i ka ʻaki o nā ʻēheu i loaʻa ma nā kahakai o ka Isle of Wight, ma ʻEnelani hema, i loaʻa paha me kahi mau ʻāpana he 9 mika. I ka makahiki 1997, ua hōʻike ʻo Eric Buffett i kahi vertebra cervical ajarheid mai nā loina Maastrichtian o nā Pyrenees Farani, e hōʻike ana i ka holoholona like me ka like. i 2001, ua hōʻike ʻia ka azhdarchide nui aʻe i ka maastricht o Valencia, Sepania, me nā ehe kuʻikuʻu nui e pili ana i 12 m.

ʻO ka mea nei i loaʻa koke iho nei, ʻo nā koina o nā pterosaur nui loa, ka mea i hōʻike ʻia ma nā waihona Maastrichtian o Romania, ma ka wahi o Hateg o Transylvania. Ua wehewehe ʻia ka ʻano nui hou e ka paleontologist ʻo Eric Buffett a ua kapa ʻia ʻo ia ʻo Hatzegopteryks (Hatzegopteryx), aia ia mau mea nāwaliwali o ka ʻūhā o ke kanaka azhdarchid nui, kekahi mau iwi o ka iwi ʻōpala e hōʻike ana hiki ke loaʻa ka lōʻihi o ka iwi nui i kahi mau mika he 2 mau mika. ʻO nā mau mea ʻē aʻe o ka iwi, e hoʻohālikelike ai me Quetzalcoatl, e hōʻike ana he mau ʻēheu paha ma kahi o 12 m.ʻO ka mōʻaukala o ka ʻimi a me ke noi ʻana o nā pterosaurs buta ʻaʻole i pau, e hoʻomau ana ka ʻōnaehana i ka mau makahiki hou, ma ka wā e hiki mai ana, e mau nā mea hou he mau mea hou.

He ʻauhau

Ma ka ʻōlelo maʻamau, ua ʻākoakoa ʻia nā pterosaurs i ʻelua ʻāpana: Rhamphorhynchoidea, the "primitima" pūʻulu pterosaurs lōʻihi lōʻihi, a ʻo Pterodactyloidea, nā "advanced" pterosaurs pōkole lōʻihi. Eia naʻe, i kēia manawa, ua nui ka mōʻī o kēia kuʻuna. I kēia manawa, i ka ʻauhau biology, ʻike ʻia ka hui ʻo Rhamphorhynchoidea he hui paraphyletic, a mai ka manawa o nā lālā Pterodactyloidea ua hele pololei mai ia lākou, ʻaʻole mai kahi kūpuna maʻamau, ua nalowale kēia hui i ke kūlana o kahi "suborder" a ua hoʻohana ʻole ʻia ma waena o nā ʻepekema nui.

• ʻOhana Dimorphodontidae (Dimorphodontidae)
• ʻOhana ka ʻohana Rhamphorhynchidae
• Kaumakaiwa (Campylognathoides)
• Family Vukongopteridae (Wukongopteridae)
• Anurognathida (Anurognathidae)

• Kulana Pterodactylids (Pterodactylidae)
• Ka 'ohana o nā Kelemania (Germanodactylidae)
• Kāpili ʻohana Ctenochasmatidae
• ʻO ka ʻohana o Istiodactylidae (Istiodactylidae)
• ʻOihana ʻohana ʻo Nyctosauridae
• Pteranodontidae Kaʻohana (Pteranodontidae)
• Pamela ʻAlohelohe (Ornithocheiridae)
• ʻO ka ʻohana ʻo Ayangueridae (Anhangueridae)
• ʻO ka ʻohana Tapejaridae
• Kauʻanui ʻohana (Thalassodromidae)
• Dzungaripterida ʻohana (Dsungaripteridae)
• ʻAmelika ʻAmelika (Azhdarchidae)

Noho ʻano ola Pterosaur

ʻOkoʻa loa ka kahi o nā pterosaurs. Ua hoʻoholo ʻia kēia ma o ka ʻokoʻa ʻana o nā ʻano o nā pterosaurs, e ʻoi aku hoʻi i ke ʻano o ko lākou ʻāʻī, ke poʻo a me nā niho. ʻO kekahi mau pterosaurs he niho ʻole a ua ʻai paha nā mea kanu, e like me nā ʻano lā. ʻO nā poʻe ʻē aʻe he mau niho manu lōʻihi ka mea kūpono i ka iʻa. He ʻai manu kekahi, a loaʻa pū kekahi ʻano mea ʻai i nā mollusks liʻiliʻi. ʻO nā membranes i nā wāwae o kekahi pterosaurs e hōʻike ana i kā lākou ākea hiki ke noho ma ka wai e like me nā poki. ʻO ka nui o nā koena o pterosaurs i loaʻa i ka wai ʻauʻau, ka wai a me ka loko, a he hōʻike kēia e noho ana kekahi poʻe i ke kai, e like me albatrosses.

ʻO kekahi hiʻohiʻona o ke koena o ka pterosaurs ka crest i luna o ke poʻo (i kekahi manawa me kahi poʻomanaʻo aniani), ʻo ia hoʻi, e ʻōlelo nei i nā hiʻohiʻona wahine. Inā like ʻole nā ​​ʻano o nā māla o ka pterosaurs e like me nā manu o kēia wā, a laila he nui nā mea ʻepekema e aʻo e pili ana iā lākou.

ʻIke mākou ua launa pū nā pterosaurs i ka dinosaurs, akā ʻo ka manawa pinepine loa i kipa ʻia i mea ʻai. Ma kahi o ʻelua mau manawa, ua ʻike nā ʻepekema i nā koena o ka pterosaurs, nona nā niho nā theropod. I kekahi o nā mea i loaʻa, ua kuʻi ʻia kahi niho spinosaurus mai ka ʻāʻī o ka pterosaur. Ua loaʻa hoʻi i nā kānaka ʻepekema kahi ʻēhe pterosaur me nā niho dromaeosaurid. Eia nō naʻe, ʻaʻohe mea e hōʻike ai ka pilina pili ma waena o nā pterosaurs a me nā dinosaurs.

ʻOi aku ma kahi o pterodactyl

Nui nā ʻano like o nā pterosaurs. He pōkole ʻuʻuku liʻiliʻi a me nā ʻēheu ma lalo o ka mika ka mea liʻiliʻi loa. He ʻāʻī lōʻihi a nui nā ʻona nui (ʻoi aku ʻelua mau mika ka lōʻihi) ke poʻo nui (a ʻoi aku hoʻi ma mua o ʻelua mau mika) a me nā ʻēheu he 9 a 13 paha. ʻO nā pterosaurs o ka Triassic a me Late Jurassic i lōʻihi ka lōʻihi, aʻo ka pterosaurs o ka Cretaceous ua palena iki. Ma kahi o 120 ʻano ʻano pterosaurs i ʻike ʻia, a ʻoi aku hoʻi nā mea ʻepekema, ʻike hou aku i nā ʻano hou he nui hou.

I loko o ka puke, ua hoʻohana ʻia ʻelua mau huaʻōlelo (a i kekahi manawa hewa ʻole): pterosaurs a me pterodactyls. Pau ka huaʻōlelo mua mai ka huaʻōlelo Pterosauriae hoʻolālā ana i nā pterosaurs āpau. ʻO ka huaʻōlelo "pterodactyl" ka mea i hoʻohana pinepine ʻia e ka hoʻonaʻauao ʻana e hōʻike i nā pterosaurs, akā i kekahi manawa, ua hoʻohana ʻia e nā kānaka ʻepekema e pili i ke ʻano o nā pterosaurs, ka mea i hoʻomohala ʻia e nā nostrils i hui pū ʻia me nā foramen orbital anterior. He hole kēia i kuhikuhi ʻia e ka huaʻōlelo antorbital fenestra, pili pili me nā ihu, e hana ana i kahi hāmeʻe nui i ke kaʻe o nā pterosaurs. ʻO ka inoa ʻepekema no ka pterosaurs me kahi ʻūlū like Pterodactyloidea, akā, kapa kekahi poʻe loiloi iā lākou he pterodactyls. He ʻāpana pokole kēia ʻano. Noho ʻo Pterodactyls i ka Cretaceous.

Loaʻa nā loaʻa

I nā makahiki kenekulia 20, ua ʻike nā kānaka ʻepekema i nā ʻano hou he nui o pterosaurs. No lākou nā Triassic, Jurassic a me Cretaceous manawa. I nā makahiki he 20 i hala iho nei, ua loaʻa he ʻelua o nā ʻano o nā pterosaurs ma mua o nā 200 makahiki i hala. He mea pono ia ma waena o kēia mau ʻike i ka mea i hiki ai ke aʻo ʻia i ka paleobiology a me ka ecology o pterosaurs. Ma Argentina a me Kina, ua loaʻa i nā kānakaʻepekema nā huaʻai pterosaur me nā embryos i loko. I ka manawa like, ma Kina, ua loaʻa i nā ʻepekema kahi hua manu i loko o kahi wahine pterosaur. Hōʻike kēia i nā pterosaurs i ʻelua mau pālua.

ʻO nā embryos i loaʻa i hana i nā ʻōpala e like me nā hana a nā pākeke. Ua hōʻike kēia ua aʻo nā pterosaurs e lele koke i ka wā hānau. Ma Kina a me Brazil, ua loaʻa nā ʻepekema i nā pūnaewele huna. ʻO kēia ka mea a nā pterosaurs i makemake nui ʻia i nā hui.

Ua nui nā noiʻi i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā mea noiʻi e helu pono i ke kaumaha o ke kino o nā pterosaurs. Ka mea, ua ʻoi aku ka paʻakikī ma mua o ka mea i manaʻo ʻia ma mua. ʻO ka mea mahalo, ʻo nā mea a nā pterosaurs e like me ka quetzalcoatli i piha ka nui o ko lākou manawa ma ka honua. Ua hōʻike ʻia kahi hōʻike o ke anatomy o ka lolo o ka pterosaurs he nui lākou (hoʻohālikelike ʻia i nā manu) kanikani semicircular. Ua ikeia no ka lele ana o pterosaurs me ko lakou mau poo i lalo, a ua wehe keia i na manu mai na manu.

Nui a loaʻa mau nīnau e wehe ana, akā loaʻa kēlā me kēia makahiki ʻepekema i nā ʻano hou o ka pterosaurs, a hiki iā ia ke ʻike i nā kikoʻī hou. I kēia mau makahiki i hala iho nei, ua puka mai nā hana hou no ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā pterosaurs. ʻO ka mea hoihoi loa iā lākou ka hoʻokaʻina ʻana i ka tomography.Hiki iā ia i nā paleontologists ke ʻike i nā kikoʻī o loko o nā iwi. Hāʻawi ka mea mana ikaika e noʻonoʻo i nā koena i hoʻokaʻawale ʻole ʻia mai ka pōhaku. Hiki i ke kiʻi o Tomography ke kumu kūʻai ʻia, akā ʻo nā hopena e haʻahaʻa loa ai. ʻO kēia a me nā ʻano hana ʻē aʻe i ʻae iā mākou e kāohi i nā koena o ka pterosaurs i loaʻa i nā ʻepekema i nā makahiki. ʻO ka wā e hiki mai ana e noiʻi i ka ʻimi pterosaur.